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Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

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http://www.archive.org/details/elementsofenglisOOboydrich 


ELEMENTS 


or 


ENGLISH   COMPOSITION, 


GRAMMATICAL,  RHETORICAL,  LOGICAL, 
AND  PRACTICAL. 


PREPARED  FOR  ACADEMIES  AND  SCHOOLS. 

BY 

Pkof.  JAMES  R.  BOYD,  D.D., 


AOTHOB  OF 


ANNOTATED   EDITIONS  OF  ENGLISH  POKTS,   OF   "lI^EMENTS  ( 


**  WAItfVo' 


LOGIC,"    OF   AN    IMPROVED    EDITION   OF   "KAMEB' 
KLEMKNTS,"    ETC. 


A.    S.    BARNES    &    COMPANY, 

NEW  YORK,  CHICAGO  and  NEW  ORLEANS. 

JOHM  S.  PRELL 

G'w7  &  Mechanical  Engineer. 

SAN  FRAN  CISCO,  CAL. 


"A  Well  of  English  Undefiled." 

LITERATURE  AND  BELLES  LETTRES. 

PROFESSOR  CLEYELAITD'S  WORKS. 

jL  WMOLE  LIBltJLMT  IN  FOUM  VOLUMJES 

COlEilMisLITERATM. 

CLEVELAND'S  COMPLETE  MILTON,  WITH  VERBAL  INDEX. 

One  Hundred  and  Twenty  Thousand  of  these  Volumes  have  been  sold,  and  they  are  o 

the  acknowledged  Standard  wherever  this  refining  study  is  pursued. 


PROF.  JAMES  R.  BOYD'S  WORKS. 

EMBRACINQ 

COMPOSITION,  lOGIC,  IITERATURE,  USETOMIC,  CRITICISM, 
BIOGRAPHY s—rOETRT,  AND  PROSE, 


BOYD'S  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 

Remarkable  for  the  space  and  attention  given  to  grammatical  principles,  to  af- 
ford a  substantial  groundwork ;  also  for  the  admirable  treatment  of  synonyms, 
figurative  language,  and  the  sources  of  argument  and  illustration,  with  notable  ex- 
ercises for  preparing  the  way  to  poetic  composition. 

BOYD'S  ELEMENTS  OF  LOGIC 

explains,  first,  the  conditions  and  processes  by  which  the  mind  receives  ideas,  and 
then  unfolds  the  art  of  reasoning,  with  clear  directions  for  the  establishment  and 
confirmation  of  sound  judgment.  A  thoroughly  practical  treatise,  being  a  system- 
atic and  philosophical  condensation  of  all  that  is  known  of  the  subject. 

BOYD'S  KAMES'  CRITICISM. 

This  standard  work,  as  is  well  known,  treats  of  the  faculty  of  perception,  and 
the  result  of  its  exercise  upon  the  tastes  and  emotions.  It  may  therefore  oe  termed 
a  Compendium  of  Aesthetics  and^  Natural  Morals ;  and  its  use  in  refining  the  mind 
and  heart  has  made  it  a  standard  text-book. 

BOYD'S  ANNOTATED  ENGLISH  CLASSICS. 

Milton* s  Paradi.se  lost.  I     Tlionison's  Seasons. 

Young's  Night  Thoughts.  Polloh's  Course  of  Time. 

Cowper's  Task,  Table  TalJe,  &c.  I     lord  Bacon's  Essays. 

In  six  cheap  volumes.  The  service  done  to  literature,  by  Prof.  Boyd's  Annota- 
tions upon  these  standard  writers,  can  with  difficulty  be  estimated.  Line  by  line 
their  expressions  and  ideas  are  analyzed  and  discussed,  until  the  best  compre- 
hension of  the  powerful  use  of  language  is  obtained  by  the  learner. 

Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress  in  the  year  i860,  by 

BARNES    &    BURR, 

In  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  United  States  for  the  Southern  District 

of  New  York. 


l"  dlA^iJUi 


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mi 

PREFATORY  NOTE; 


The  following  work  is  for  the  most  part  a  compila- 
tion, the  materials  being  drawn  chiefly  from  the  recent 
English  treatises  of  Williams,  Smart,  Neil,  and  Harri- 
son ;  a  portion  of  them  also  from  the  standard  works  of 
Blair,  Campbell,  and  Jamieson,  and  an  anonymous 
London  work  on  the  Art  of  Reasoning.  In  preparing 
the  grammatical  department  of  the  volume,  the  author 
has  carefully  consulted  the  Grammars  of  Clark,  Mur- 
ray, Fowler,  Bullions,  Goold  Brown,  Spencer,  Greene, 
Butler,  Tower,  Bailey,  Covell,  and  Mulligan ;  he  has 
also  derived  more  or  less  aid  from  Welch's  "  Analysis 
of  the  English  Sentence,"  Tower's  "  Grammar  of  Com- 
position," Quackenboss'  "  First  Lessons  and  Advanced 
Course,"  and  Parker's  "  Aids." 

Though  aware  of  the  great  excellencies  which  belong 
to  several  works  on  Composition  and  Rhetoric  now  in 
extensive  use,  the  author  believes  that  the  present  one 
comprehends  more  matter  that  will  be  found  practi- 
cally useful  and  available  in  academies  and  schools, 
than  any  other  single  treatise.  He  would  not  have 
devoted  so  much  space  to  the  illustration  and  applica- 
tion of  grammatical  principles,  had  not  experience  as 

208 


4  PREFATORY   NOTE. 

an  Instructor  convinced  him  of  the  serious  disadvan- 
tage under  which  not  a  few  labor,  in  beginning  to 
write  composition,  from  an  imperfect  acquaintance 
with  the  English  grammar.  The  present  work  is 
adapted  to  'beginners^  and  in  its  progress  to  advanced 
classes — being  designed  to  furnish  all  the  aid  that  is 
needful,  or  that  can  be  desired,  in  the  various  depart- 
ments and  styles  of  composition,  both  in  Prose  and 
Verse. 

The  subject  of  Synonyms  has  received  a  larger  share 
of  attention  than  is  usual  in  works  of  this  kind ;  but 
not  larger  than  its  importance  demands.  Much  space 
also  is  allotted  to  Figurative  Language,  to  Sources  of 
Argument  and  Illustration  in  the  treatment  of  various 
subjects,  and  to  exercises  that  prepare  the  way  for 
Poetic  Composition.  The  proper  use  of  this  work  will 
stimulate  the  mental  powers,  suggest  trains  of  thought, 
secure  a  command  of  appropriate  language,  and,  in 
short,  facilitate  the  acquirement  of  the  most  useful  and 
elegant  of  Arts — that  of  correct,  easy,  forcible,  and 
tasteful  Composition. 

AiPRiu  1860. 


CONTENTS. 


licsBoir                                                                                                                Taou 
*.  Examples  for  the  use  of  capital  letters,  points,  marks  of  quota- 
tion, &c 11 

2.  Additional  examples  for  the  use  of  capital  letters,  &c 12 

3  Use  of  capital  letters 14 

4  Parts  of  speech. — ^The  Noun 18 

6.  Nouns. — Their  number,  gender,  case 19 

6.  Nouns. — ^Their  gender 23 

7.  Nouns. — Their  cases 24 

8.  Pronouns. — Personal  Pronouns 26 

9.  Pronouns. — Compound  personal,  relative,  etc 29 

10.  Adjective  Pronouns,  or  Pronominal  Adjectives ,  32 

11.  Adjectives 84 

12    Adjectives. — Degrees  of  quality  expressed 37 

13.  The  Article. — Proper  and  improper  use  of  it 39 

'14.  The  Verb.— Classes  of  Verbs 44 

15.  Auxiliary  Verbs. — Erroneous  use  of  them 47 

16  Intransitive  Verbs. — ^Erroneous  use  of  them 61 

17  Irregular  Verbs. — ^Erroneous  use  of  them 63 

18.  Verbs. — ^The  proper  use  of  the  subjunctive  mood 65 

19.  Verbs. — Proper  and  improper  use  of  certain  tenses  and  moods.  68 

20.  Verbs. — The  proper  use  of  number  and  person 61 

21    Verbs.— The  infinitive  mood 66 

22.  Participles 68 


(I  GONTENTB. 

liESSOIf  Paob 

23.  Exercises  on  Participles 73 

24.  The  Adverb 74 

25.  Position  of  Adverbs  in  a  sentence,  and  their  misapplication. .  76 

26.  Position  of    Adverbs  in  a  sentence 77 

27.  Prepositions 80 

28.  Prepositions. — Their  collocation  and  repetition 84 

29.  Conjunctions  or  connectives 87 

80.  Conjunctions. — Effect  of  repetition  and  omission 90 

31.  Interjections 93 

32.  Primitive  and  derivative  words 94 

33.  Root-forms  received  into  our  language  from  the  Latin 96 

34.  Spelling  of  derivative  and  compound  words 104 

35.  Abbreviations 106 

36.  Miscellaneous  exercises  on  the  parts  of  speech 109 

37.  Sentences Ill 

88.  The  subject  of  a  sentence 112 

8-9    The  complex  or  modified  subject 115 

40.  The  predicate  of  a  sentence 117 

41.  Transitive  and  intransitive  sentences 119 

42.  Complex  sentences 120 

43.  Sentences. — Simple  and  compound 123 

44.  Sentences. — Declarative,  conditional,   interrogative,  impera- 

tive, exclamatory 125 

45.  Agreement  and  correspondence  among  the  parts  of  a  sentence  126 
•16.  Correspondence,  grammatical  and  logical,  among  the  parts  of 

a  sentence 127 

47    Punctuation 128 

48.  Punctuation. — The  comma 131 

49.  Punctuation. — The  comma 132 

50.  Punctuation. — Colon,  semicolon hM 

51.  Punctuation. — Period  ;  interrogation  and  exclamation  points ; 

dash l^ 


CONTENTS.  « 

fiESSON  PAOB 

52,  Punctuation. — Kemaining  marks 137 

63.  Sentence-building 140 

54.  Sentences  varied  in  structure , . .  141 

55.  Sentences  varied  in  structure 142 

66.  Sentences  varied  by  abridgment  and  omission  of  clauses 143 

67.  Equivalent  modes  of  expression 144 

58.  Sentences  varied  by  transposition  of  words  and  clauses 145 

69.  Sentences  constructed  from  given  words 147 

60.  Sentences  periodic  and  non-periodic 147 

61.  Non-periodic  and  periodic  sentences 149 

62.  Formation  of  periodic  sentences 151 

63.  Choice  between  non-periodic  sentences  and  a  periodic  sentence  163 

64.  Grammatical  purity  of  diction 165 

65.  Purity  of  diction 158 

66.  Simplicity  of  diction 162 

67.  Propriety  of  expression 166 

68.  Propriety  of  expression 168 

69.  Propriety  of  expression 170 

70.  Precision  of  expression 173 

71.  Precision  of  expression 175 

72.  Precision  of  expression 177 

73.  Precision  of  expression. — Synonyms 180 

74.  Precision  of  expression. — Synonyms  explained  and  illustrated  182 

75.  Precision  of  expression. — Use  of  synonyms 187 

76.  Synonyms,  continued 189 

77.  Synonyms,  continued 191 

78.  Additional  synonyms 194 

79.  Synonyms,  continued 196 

80.  Precision  of  expression 200 

81.  Clearness  in  the  structure  of  sentences 201 

82.  Clearn«^ss  in  the  structure  of  sentences 205 

83.  Clearness  in  the  structure  of  sentences 207 


8  CONTENTS. 

LKSSOX  FlflS 

84.  Clearness  in  the  structure  of  sentences 210 

85.  Unity  in  the  construction  of  sentences  and  paragraphs 211 

86.  Strength  and  vivacity  of  expression 213 

87.  Strength  in  the  structure  of  sentences 216 

88.  Vivacity  of  expression 218 

89.  The  harmony,  or  melodious  structure  of  sentences 220 

90.  The  harmonious  structure  of  sentences 223 

91.  Clear  and  harmonious  construction  of  the  periodic  sentence.  225 

92.  Clear  and  harmonious  structure  of  the  periodic  sentence. .. .  227 
98.  The  simple,  or  natural  style 230 

94.  The  elegant  style.— The  sublime  style 232 

95.  Materials  of  thought  and  expression. — ^The  formation  of  style  234 

96.  Figurative  expression 238 

97.  The  simile,  or  comparison 240 

98.  The  metaphor 243 

99.  The  allegory 246 

100.  Hyperbole 249 

101.  Personification 251 

102.  Apostrophe 253 

103.  The  vision,  or  hypotyposis 255 

104.  The  metonymy 257 

105.  The  synecdoche  (or  comprehension) 259 

106.  The  antonomasia 260 

107.  The  irony 261 

108.  The  euphemism,  litotes,  and  communication 263 

109.  The  climax,  or  gradation 264 

110.  The  antithesis,  or  contrast 266 

111.  Anticipation. — Correction. — Omission. — Concession. — Expos- 

tulation (or  communication). — Dubitation 260 

112.  Enumeration. — Accumulation. — Asyndeton,  etc 270 

113.  Practical  exercises  on  enumeration  and  other  figures  of  the 

preceding  lesson ^ . .  278 


CONTENTS*  9 

114.  The  interrogation. — The  exclamation »».>»..,.  274 

116.  Exercises  on  exclamation  and  interrogation 276 

116.  Parenthesis. — Analepsis.— Apposition 278 

117.  Exercises  on  the  figures  in  the  preceding  lesson 280 

118.  Hyperbaton. — Anacoluthon.— ^Aposiopesis *........  281 

119.  Kepetition  and  redundancy 282 

120.  The  alliteration 283 

121.  Correction  of  faulty  metaphorical  language »...»....  285 

122.  Exercises  on  metaphorical  language 287 

123.  Elementary  exercise  in  original  composition 290 

124.  Various  kinds  of  exercise  in  original  composition 291 

125.  Change  of  poetry  into  prose 292 

126.  Improving  the  style  of  old  authors — and  abridging  modern 

authors 295 

127.  Translations  and  paraphrase 296 

128.  Sources  of  illustration 298 

129.  Additional  sources  of  illustration 298 

130.  Additional  sources  of  illustration 300 

131.  Descriptive  writing 301 

132.  Questions  suggestive  of  ideas  for  description 303 

133.  Narrative  composition 305 

134.  Personal  subjects 809 

135.  Biography 311 

136.  Historical  composition  ;  travels  ;  novels 812 

137.  Letter-writing. — Rules  for  it 814 

138.  Additional  rules  for  letter- writing. — Specimens 315 

139.  Essays,  dissertations,  etc 824 

140.  *'  Topics"  suggestive  of  ideas 826 

141.  *'  Topics"  suggestive  of  ideas 827 

142.  "  Topics"  suggestive  of  ideas. . .  . .   829 

143.  *'  Topics' '  suggestive  of  ideas 330 

144.  *•  Topics'  *  suggestive  of  ideas ^ 831 

1« 


10  CONTENTS. 

Lessow  Pack 

145.  **  Topics"  suggestive  of  ideas 833 

146.  '*  Topics' '  suggestive  of  ideas 334 

147.  **  Topics' '  suggestive  of  ideas 336 

148.  The  oration  or  discourse 338 

149.  Aids  in  argumentative  writing 341 

150.  Aids  in  argumentative  writing 344 

151.  Aids  in  argumentative  writing 346 

152.  Aids  in  argumentative  writing 349 

153.  Reasoning  from  examples 350 

154.  Reasoning  from  analogy,  comparison,  and  contrast 352 

155.  Reasoning  by  fables  and  proverbs 353 

156.  Descriptive  and  interrogative  reasoning 355 

157.  Laws  of  argumentative  writing. ...    357 

158.  Sermon-writing 358 

169.  The  writing  of  poetry 360 

160.  Versification 361 

161 .  Poetical  pauses 368 

162    Rules  for  the  principal  or  cassural  pause 369 

163.  Rules  for  final  pauses 371 

164.  Accents  in  verse 373 

165.  Imperfect  rhymes 375 

166.  Blank  verse 378 

167.  Preliminaries  to  versification 379 

168.  Preliminaries  to  versification , 380 

169.  Versification  continued 382 

170.  Etymological  and  syntactical  figures 385 

171 .  Poetic  language  and  construction 386 

172.  Narrative  poetry 390 

173.  Lyric  poetry 392 

174.  Descriptive  poetry 393 

Subjects  for  Composition , 395 


ELEMENTS 

OF 

ENGLISH    COMPOSITION. 


LESSON  I. 


Copy  page  after  page  from  books,  observing  the  capital 
tetters,  the  points  used,  the  marks  of  quotation,  and  the 
spelling  of  the  words,  so  as  to  make  an  accurate  copy. 

Copy  passages  of  poetry,  as  well  as  of  prose,  until  the 
task  can  be  performed  easily  and  with  accuracy. 

Examples. 

He  who  cannot  bear  a  joke,  should  not  give  one. 

AVhat  is  done  cannot  be  undone. 

In  most  quarrels  there  is  a  fault  on  both  sides.  A  quarrel  may 
be  compared  to  a  spark,  which  cannot  be  produced  without  a 
flint,  as  well  as  a  steel;  either  of  them  may  hammer  on  wood  for- 
ever, and  no  fire  will  follow. 

Reading  furnishes  the  mind  only  with  materials  of  knowledge; 
it  is  thinking  that  makes  what  we  read  ours. 

Some  books  are  to  be  tasted,  others  to  be  swallowed,  and  some 
few  to  be  chewed  and  digested :  that  is,  some  books  are  to  be 
read  only  in  part ;  others  to  be  read,  but  not  curiously ;  and  some 
few  to  be  read  wholly,  and  with  diligence  and  attention.  Nathan 
said  unto  David,  "  Thou  art  the  man." 

Cherish  thy  Mother ;  brief  perchance  the  time 
May  be,  that  she  will  claim  the  care  she  gave : 

Past  are  her  hopes  of  youth,  her  harvest  prime 
Of  joy  on  earth ;  her  friends  are  in  the  grave : 


12  WRITING   FBOM   DIOTATIOIT. 

But  for  her  children,  she  could  lay  her  head 
Gladly  to  rest  among  her  precious  dead. 

O  mother  mine  1  God  grant  I  ne'er  forget, 

Whatever  be  my  grief,  or  what  my  joy, 
The  unmeasured,  unextinguishable  debt 

I  owe  thy  love ;  but  make  my  sweet  employ, 
Ever,  through  my  remaining  days,  to  be 
To  thee  as  faithful  as  thou  wert  to  me.  Bethunx. 


LESSOK  II. 


Write,  from  dictation^  the  previous  selections,  or  others 
made  by  the  Teacher,  until  accuracy  and  readiness  shall 
be  acquired.  A  few  additional  examples,  for  this  purpose, 
are  subjoined. 

Examples. 

Five  Minutes. — A  number  of  years  ago,  it  was  a  custom  of  the 
Orthodox  churches  in  Boston  (at  the  request  of  the  chaplain  of  the 
State  Prison),  to  furnish  about  a  dozen  teachers,  who  would  vol- 
untarily go  to  the  Prison  on  Sabbath  forenoon  to  instruct  classes 
of  the  convicts  in  a  Sabbath-school  in  the  chapel. 

Hon.  Samuel  Hubbard  was  one  of  those  who  went.  Near  the 
close  of  the  time  devoted  to  instruction,  the  chaplain  said  : 

"  We  have  five  minutes  to  spare.  Mr.  Hubbard,  will  you  please 
to  make  a  few  remarks  ?" 

He  arose  in  a  calm,  dignified  manner,  and  looking  at  the  pris- 
oners said : 

"  I  am  told  that  we  have  five  minutes  to  spare.  Much  may  be 
done  in  five  minutes.  In  five  minutes  Judas  betrayed  his  Master, 
and  went  to  his  own  place.  In  five  minutes  the  thief  on  the  cross 
repented,  and  went  with  the  Saviour  to  Paradise.  No  doubt  many 
of  those  before  me  did  that  act  in  five  minutes,  which  brought 
them  to  this  place.  In  five  minutes  you  may  repent,  and  go  to 
Paradise  ;  or  will  you  imitate  Judas,  and  go  to  the  place  where  lie 
ts?    My  five  minutes  have  expired." — Recorder, 


WRITING   FROM   DICTATION.  13 

The  following  is  a  calculation  of  the  number  of  books,  verses, 
vvords,  letters,  etc.,  contained  in  the  Old  and  New  Testaments. 
It  is  worth  reading  and  preserving : 

Old  Testament. — Number  of  books,  39  ;  chapters,  929 ;  verses, 
83,214;  words,  592,439 ;  letters,  2,728,100. 

The  middle  book  is  Proverbs. 

The  middle  chapter  is  Job  xxix. 

The  middle  verse  would  be  2  Chronicles  xx.  17,  if  there  were  a 
verse  less  ;  and  verse  18,  if  there  were  a  verse  more. 

The  word  and  occurs  35,543  times. 

The  word  Jehovah  occurs  6,855  times. 

The  shortest  verse  is  1  Chronicles  i.  25. 

The  21st  verse  of  the  7th  chapter  of  Ezra  contains  all  the  letters 
of  the  alphabet. 

The  19th  of  2  Kings  and  the  37th  chapter  of  Isaiah  are  alike. 

New  Testament. — Number  of  books,  27;  chapters,  260 ;  verses, 
7,050;  words,  181,258;  letters,  828,580. 

The  middle  book  is  2  Thessalonians. 

The  middle  chapter  is  Romans  xiii.,  if  there  were  a  chapter 
less;  and  xiv.,  if  there  were  a  chapter  more. 

The  middle  and  least  verse  is  John  xi.  35. 

Old  and  New  Testament. — Number  of  books,  66 ;  chapters, 
1189;  verses,  40,264 ;  words,  773,697;  letters,  3,556,680. 

The  middle  chapter,  and  least  in  the  Bible,  is  the  117th  Psalm. 

The  middle  verse  is  Psalm  cxviii.  8. 

Exercise. 

The  pupil  may  here  with  advantage  study,  and  should 
write/Vom  dictation^  those  columns  and  sentences  from  the 
Spelling-Book  which  contain  words  that  being  similar  in 
pronunciation^  but  different  in  spelling  and  in  meaning^ 
are  likely  to  be  confounded:  also  those  sentences  which  con- 
tain words  which  it  is  difficult  to  write  orthographically. 
See  Parker  and  Watson's  Speller,  and  Northend's  "  Dicta- 
tion Exercises."  Exercises  of  this  kind  should  be  contin- 
ued, at  least  occasionally,  until  the  power  shall  be  acquired 
of  writing  from  dictation  with  perfect  accuracy. 


14  uaiD  OF  cAPnwLS. 


Examples. 

He  adds  insult  to  injury.  Sharpen  the  adze.  What  can  ail 
him?  This  is  good  ale.  Ere  you  go.  If  e''er  it  happen.  Bring 
me  an  awl.  The  ascent  is  steep.  I  give  my  assent.  If  aught  pre- 
vented, you  ought  to  have  told  me.  The  arc  of  a  circle.  Noah's 
arh.  The  bough  of  a  tree.  Make  a  low.  Near  the  heach  stands  a 
heeck'tvQQ.  Roll  the  hall.  Do  not  hawl  so  loud.  The  ceiling  of 
a  room.  He  is  sealing  a  letter.  The  complement  of  an  angle.  A 
complimental  notice.  Boston  is  the  capital.  The  Capitol  at 
Washington.  Faint  with  hunger.  A  feint  to  deceive.  A  Jir- 
tree.  A  garment  lined  with  fur.  A  ring  of  gold.  To  wring  the 
hands.  The  seam  does  not  seem  water-tight.  Have  you  ever  seen 
a  seine  filled  with  fish  ? 


LESSON  III. 

USE    OF    CAPITAL   LETTERS. 

The  capital,  or  larger  form  of  Letters,  is  to  be  used 

1.  At  the  commencement  of  every  book,  chapter,  para- 
graph, and  independent  sentence ;  as,  The  house  is  large. 
Great  cause  there  is  for  regret. 

2.  At  the  beginning  of  every  line  in  poetry ;  as, 

The  path  may  be  stony, 

The  hill  may  be  steep, 
The  hedge  thick  and  thorny, 

The  stream  strong  and  deep. 

3.  The  pronoun  Z,  and  the  exclamation  0,  or  Oh, 

4.  A  direct  or  formal  quotation  commences  with  a  cap- 
ital letter;  as,  He  prayed  "Our  Father,"  and  pronounced 
aloud,  "Thine  is  the  kingdom  and  the  power,  and  thine 
the  glory."  Jesus  said  unto  him,  "Thou  shalt  love  the 
Lord  thy  God  with  all  thy  heart."  And  the  second  is  like 
unto  it,  "Thou  shalt  love  thy  neighbor  as  thyself." 


TJSE   OF   CAPITALS.  15 

All  indirect  quotation  does  not  require  the  use  of  a  capi- 
tal letter ;  as,  Dr.  Young  has  well  said,  that  "  procrastina- 
tion is  the  thief  of  time." 

5.  The  first  word  after  a  Period  ( . ),  or  after  an  Exclama- 
tion Point  { ! ),  or  after  an  Interrogation  Point  (  ?  )  requires 
a  capital  letter. 

6.  Also,  names  and  pronouns  relating  to  the  Supreme 
Being ;  as,  God,  Christ,  Holy  Spirit,  Most  High,  Almighty, 
Omniscient,  Creator,  Saviour. 

7.  Names  of  Persons,  and  honorary  and  official  titles ; 
as,  Daniel  Webster,  President  Buchanan,  STscretary  Cass, 
Queen  Victoria,  Emperor  Napoleon,  Elder  Brewster,  Dea- 
con Jones,  Rev.  Mr.  Parker. 

8.  Names  of  certain  individual  objects,  of  Days  of 
the  Week,  and  Months  of  the  Year :  also  Common  Nouns 
personified ;  as.  Doth  not  Wisdom  cry  ?  Thou  hast  all 
seasons  for  thine  own,  O  Death  !  The  Sea  saw  it,  and 
fled. 

9.  The  principal  words  in  the  titles  and  divisions  ol 
books  ;  as,  Sampson's  "  Brief  Remarker,"  Macaulay's  "His- 
tory of  England,"  Chapter  Fifth,  Volume  Third. 

10.  Titles,  heads  of  chapters  or  sections,  inscriptions, 
signs,  &c.,  are  printed  usually  all  in  Capitals. 

In  writing  for  the  press,  when  it  is  desired  to  have  any 
word  or  words  printed  in  small  capitals  two  lines  are  to 
be  drawn  under;  if  in  LARGE  CAPITALS,  three  lines. 
If  it  is  desired  to  print  a  word  in  Italics^  a  single  line  is  to 
be  drawn  under  it.  These  modes  of  printing  are  used  to 
indicate  emphatic  words,  phrases,  or  sentences ;  or  to  de- 
note contrasted  words  and  phrases. 

11.  Adjectives  derived  from  proper  names;  as,  Japanese, 
Chinese,  Calvinists,  Roman. 

12.  Nouns  that  are  designed  to  be  mado  emphatic. 


16  EXERCISES  OF   CAPITALS. 


Exercise  I. 

In  the  following  selections,  change  small  letters  into  Cap- 
itals, in  conformity  to  the  above  Rules. 

"  in  the  drama  of  life  it  is  not  to  be  considered  who  among  act- 
ors is  prince  or  who  is  beggar,  but  who  acts  prince  or  beggar 
best."  so  tanght  epictetus,  a  celebrated  philosopher  of  ancient 
greece :  and  pope  has  versified  him  in  the  following  couplet, 

" honor  and  shame  from  no  condition  rise: 
act  well  your  part ;  'tis  there  true  honor  lies." 

all  this  is  well  said,  that  the  point  of  honor  lies,  not  so  much  in 
having  a  grand  or  a  conspicuous  part  to  act,  but  rather  in  acting 
well  the  part  that  providence  allots  us,  is  a  position  which  admits 
of  no  dispute. 

it  has  been  told  that  cyrus  conquered  the  Ionian  greeks,  his  son 
cambyses,  and  after  him,  darius,  king  of  persia,  kept  the  greek  col- 
onies as  tributaries. 

knowledge  and  wisdom,  far  from  being  one 
have  ofttimes  no  connection,    knowledge  dwells 
in  heads  replete  with  thoughts  of  other  men, 
wisdom  in  minds  attentive  to  their  own. 

they  shall  call  thee,  the  city  of  the  lord,  the  zion  of  the  hoiy 
one  of  Israel,  and  thou  shalt  know  that  i  the  lord  am  thy  saviour, 
and  thy  redeemer,  the  mighty  one  of  Jacob. 

who  hath  woe  ?  who  hath  sorrow  ?  who  hath  contentions  ? 
they  that  tarry  long  at  the  wine,  i  am  reading  prescott's  life  of 
philip  second,  chapter  fourth,  woe  unto  thee,  chorazin !  woe 
unto  thee,  bethsaida  I  the  first  epistle  of  paul,  the  apostle,  to  the 
Corinthians,  are  they  hebrews  ?  so  am  i.  are  they  israelites  ? 
so  am  i.  the  americans  and  the  british,  the  french  and  the  ger- 
mans,  take  rank  as  the  most  enlightened  nations  of  the  earth. 

the  english  papers  announce  the  death  of  John  pringle  nichol, 
U.d.,  professor  of  astronomy  in  the  university  of  glasgow,  whose 
visit  to  the  u.  s.  a  few  years  since  will  be  remembered.  His  va- 
rious works,  ^'  the  architecture  of  the  heavens,"  ^'  the  solar  system," 
"  the  planetary  system,"  "  the  planet  neptune,"  were  all  written 
with  great  power. 


EXERCISES   ON    CAPITALS.  17 


Exercise  II. 

In  the  following  extracts,  capitals  are  used  sometimes 
incorrectly.     Make  the  necessary  corrections. 

When  Charles  v  read  Upon  the  Tomb  of  a  Spanish  Kobleman, 
"  here  lies  one  who  never  knew  fear,"  he  Wittily  replied,  "  then 
he  never  snuffed  a  candle  with  his  fingers." 

most  Kinds  of  roots  and  Barks  are  Now  used  as  Medicines, 
Except  the  cube  Root  and  the  bark  of  a  dog. 

a  Little  child,  being  asked  how  many  gods  there  are,  replied, 
"  One."  "  how  do  you  know  That  ?"  he  was  asked.  "  Because 
there  is  No  room  for  any  more,  For  he  fills  everywhere." 

A  french  writer  Has  said  that  ^^To  dream  gloriously.  You  must 
act  gloriously  when  you  are  awake,  And  to  bring  angels  down  To 
converse  with  you  in  sleep,  you  Must  labor  In  the  cause  of  Virtue 
daily." 

Quoth  torn,  "  Though  fair  Her  features  be, 
it  is  her  figure  Pleases  me." 
*'  what  may  her  Figure  be  ?"  I  cried. 
*'  One  hundred  Thousand .-"'  He  replied. 

the  Great  Enchanter  of  the  Nineteenth  Century  is  noah  Web- 
ster, whose  Spells  will  Never  cease  to  affect  our  Literature. 

*'  where  Shall  I  Put  this  paper  so  as  to  be  sure  of  seeing  it  to- 
morrow?" Inquired  Mary  jane  of  Her  brother  charles.  "  On  the 
looking-Glass,"  was  the  Reply. 

Two  Men,  strangers  to  each  other.  Got  into  A  dispute.  When 
one  of  Them  exclaimed,  Threateningly,  "I  will  Let  You  know,  sir. 
That  I  am  mr.  hodge !"  "  Oh,  well,  I  am  Equal  to  Several  of  you," 
Said  the  other :  "  I  am  Mr.  Hodges." 


Exercise  III. 

Copy  correctly,  from  dictation  (supplying  the  points 
and  capitals,  as  they  are  needed),  an  exceedingly  interesting 
account  of  the  late  Washington  Irving,  in  the  latter  part 
of  this  volume,  under  the  head  of"  Biography." 


18  THE  NOUN. 


LESSON  IV. 

PARTS    OF   SPEECH. — THE   NOUN. 

The  things,  persons,  or  places  about  which  we  think,  or 
speak,  or  write,  are  expressed  by  words  which  are  called 
nouns^  or  names.  Some  of  these  things  are  outward  ob- 
jects that  impress  the  senses  ;  as,  hooh.^  house^  tree.  Nouns 
such  as  these  may  be  called  Real  Nouns. 

Others  are  things  only  conceived  or  felt  in  the  mind ;  as, 
virtue^  hope^  joy^  lengthy  breadth^  eternity^  goodness^  truth. 
Such  nouns  may  be  called  Ideal  Nouns. 

Words  that  are  used  as  the  names  of  particular  persons 
or  places,  are  called  Proper  Nouns.  Thus,  London.^ 
James  Madison. 

Those  which  are  used  as  the  names  of  a  class  of  persons 
or  things,  are  called  Common  Nouns.  That  is,  names  com- 
mon.^  or  belonging  to,  all  objects  of  the  same  class.  Thus, 
tree  is  a  name  for  any  and  every  tree.  Bird  is  a  name  ap- 
plied to  any  bird. 

Words  which  are  used  as  names  of  qualitivs  of  the  objects  to 
which  they  belong,  are  called  Abstract  Nouns.  The  quality  may 
be  considered  abstractly,  by  itself,  without  reference  to  the  person 
or  thing  to  which  it  belongs  ;  as,  whiteness^  tallness^  purity^  meeh 
ness. 

A  word  is  sometimes  used  to  denote  more  than  one  person  or 
thing :  as  army^  congregation^  school.  These  words  are  called 
Collective  Nouns,  being  names  for  a  collection  of  persons  or 
thirgs.  This  collection  may  be  regarded  either  as  a  whole,  or  as 
several  individuals  combined.  Hence  we  may  say,  "  The  congre- 
gation is  assembled,"  when  viewed  as  a  body  or  as  a  whole ;  and 
we  may  say,  "  The  congregation  were  assembled,"  when  we  have 
reference  to  the  individuals,  as  such,  composing  it. 


EXERCISES    ON    NOTJNS.  19 


Exercises. 

Write  out  the  following  passages,  supplying  the  nouns  of 
various  kinds  that  are  wanting  to  complete  the  sense. 

1.  Supply  Proper  Nouns, 

Edinburgh  is  the  capital  of ,  and  London  of .     The 

most  distinguished  of  our  American  historians  are  ,  , 

,  and .    The  most  common  Arithmetics  are  those  of , 

,  ,  and .      The  principal  towns  of  the  county  in 

which  we  live  are , , ,  and . 

2.  Supply  Common  Nouns, 

The  Hudson  is  a  beautiful  .     The  Niagara is  one  of 

the  wonders  of  the  world.     Who  is  not  pleased  with , , 

3.  Supply  Abstract  Nouns. 

He  is  a  man  of , ,  and :  and  she  is  a of  rare 

and  .     Do  you  observe  the  ,  and ,  and  

of  that  fine ?     The  principal  duties  we  owe  to  our  fellow- 
creatures  are  those  of ,  ,  ,  ,  ^  ^  and 

4.  Supply  Collective  Nouns, 

The  British  is  equal  to  any  in  the  world.     The  is 

composed  of  two  houses  or  departments.     A  large of  cattle. 

A of  birds.    A of  fish.     The could  not  agree  in 

their  verdict.     What  a of  people  I     The  — —  are  dispersing. 

The is  now  in  session. 


LESSON  V. 

NOUNS. — THEIR   NUMBER,  GEISDER,  CASE, 

Number. — A  noun  denotes  either  one  object,  or  more 
than  one.  In  the  former  instance,  it  is  said  to  be  of  the 
Singular  Number ;  in  the  latter,  of  the  Plural. 


20  FORMATION  OF  PLURAL  NOUNS. 

The  General  Rule  for  changing  the  Singular  into  the 
Plural  form  of  a  Noun,  or  Name,  is  to  add  the  letter  "  s," 
or  "  es ;"  as,  tree^  trees ;  box^  boxes. 

Observe  the  following  Special  Rules  : 

1.  Nouns  ending  in  y,  after  a  consonant^  change  the  y  into  tea  ; 
as,  outcry  into  outcries ;  fly  into  flies.  Other  nouns  ending  in 
y  add  an  s.  Proper  nouns  in  y  do  not  change  it  into  ies^  but  only 
add  an  s. 

2.  Nouns  in  for  fe  change  these  endings  into  'ces  to  form  the 
plural ;  as,  calf^  cakes,  Nouns  ending  in  jf  add  an  s  in  the  plural ; 
as,  puff,  puffs. 

3.  The  plural  of  nouns  ending  in  «,  sJi,  soft  ch.,  2,  a;,  or  <?,  is 
formed  by  adding  es.  When  cJi  has  the  sound  of  ^,  only  s  is  add- 
ed to  the  singular ;  as,  monarch  becomes  monarchs. 

4.  Many  nouns  are  irregular  in  the  formation  of  the  plural ;  as, 
man.,  men;  child,  children;  goose,  geese ;  penny,  pennies  (meaning 
pieces  of  coin),  or  (when  value  is  meant)  pence  ;  die,  dice  ;  tooth, 
teeth;  index,  indexes,  or  indices ;  sow  (a  single  animal),  sows;  sow 
or  swine  (the  species),  swine,  &c. 

5.  Most  compound  nouns  form  the  plural  regularly ;  as,  handful, 
handfuls;  spoonful,  spoonfuls. 

Compound  nouns  in  which  the  principal  word  is  first,  pluralize 
the  first  word;  o,^,  father-in-law,  fathers-in-law ;  aid-de-camp, 
aids-de-camp. 

The  compounds  of  man  form  the  plural  in  men  ;  as,  flsherman., 
fishermen  ;  but  there  are  nouns  accidentally  ending  in  man  which 
have  the  plural  formed  by  adding  s,  as  in  the  general  rule.  Thus, 
talisman,  talismans ;  Mussulman,  Mussulmans.  Man-servant  and 
woman-servant  pluralize  both  constituent  words  ;  as,  men-servants, 
women-servants, 

6.  Proper  names,  when  used  in  the  plural,  as  when  two  or  more 
persons  of  the  same  name  are  classed  together,  take  the  plural 
form ;  as,  The  Browns,  The  Boyds.  With  a  title.  The  Mr, 
Browns;  The  Miss  Boyds,  If  the  persons  are  to  be  individi- 
alized,  the  title  only  is  pluralized ;  thug^  The  Messrs.  Brown ; 
The  Messrs.  James  and  Andrew  Brown;  The  Misses  Agnes  and 
Elizabeth  Boyd,  The  name  and  title  should  not  both  be  plural- 
ized ;  as,  The  Messrs.  Browns. 


FORMATION  OF  PLURAL  NOUNS.  21 

"When  two  or  more  individuals,  holding  the  same  office  are 
spoken  of,  the  name  of  office  is  to  be  pluralized ;  as,  The  Bishops 
Eastburn  and  Potter;  The  Generals  Scott  and  Ripley ;  Lords 
Brougham  and  Macaulay, 

Any  part  of  speech^  used  as  a  noun,  or  as  a  mere  name,  forms 
the  plural  like  nouns  of  a  similar  termination ;  as,  the  ayes  and 
noes  ;  the  ins  and  outs  ;  his  ands  and  his  huts  ;  the  Wel)ster8^  the 
Galhouns  of  the  country. 

7.  Numerical  figures,  letters,  and  mathematical  symbols,  receive 
a  plural  form  by  adding  «,  with  an  apostrophe  preceding ;  as,  three 
Vs  ;  four  c's  ;  cross  your  Vs  and  place  a  dot  over  the  i'«.  The  + '« 
are  more  than  the  — '«. 

8.  Some  nouns  have  only  the  singular  number ;  as,  iron^  lead^ 
milTc^  sculpture^  flour ^  goodness^  wisdom. 

Some  are  used  only  as  plural  nouns ;  as,  clothes^  dregs^  letters 
(literature),  archives^  ashes^  annals^  manners^  morals^  minutiae^ 
tidings^  thanks^  drawers,  pincers,  scissors,  tongs,  shears. 

Some  are  used  in  both  numbers,  possessing  the  same  form  ;  as, 
sheep,  trout,  gallows,  pains,  ethics,  mathematics,  pneumatics,  series, 
salmon,  deer,  species,  head  of  cattle  (denoting  individual  cattle), 
fish  and  fowl  (meaning  the  class).  When  individuals  are  denoted, 
the  regular  plural  form  must  be  used— flshes  and  fowls. 

9.  After  numeral  adjectives,  the  words  cavalry,  foot,  horse,  in- 
fantry, sail,  weight,  pair,  couple,  score,  hundred,  &c.,  are  used  in 
the  singular  and  plural ;  as,  six  hundred,  one  hundred  ;  three  can- 
non, one  cannon.  But  without  a  numeral  adjective  the  most  of 
such  words  take  the  plural  form;  as,  by  hundreds;  hy  dozens. 
Foot  and  horse,  referring  to  bodies  of  soldiers,  and  people,  meaning 
persons,  are  regarded  as  plural ;  as,  "  Many  people  were  engaged." 
People  (denoting  a  community  or  body  of  persons)  is  a  collec- 
tive noun,  in  the  singular,  but  it  sometimes  takes  the  plural  form ; 
as,  "  Many  peoples  and  nations." 

Amends  and  means,  referring  to  one  object,  are  singular ;  to 
more  than  one,  plural.  In  the  singular  form,  mea  \  denotes  the 
middle  between  two  extremes.  News  is  for  the  most  part  con- 
strued as  singular — so  also,  molasses,  measles ;  alms,  and  riches, 
and  oats,  as  plural. 

10.  Nouns  derived  from  foreign  languages  often  retain  the  plural 
form  of  the  languages  to  which  they  belong :  Datum,  data  ;  d^- 


22  FORMATION  OF  PLURAL  NOUNS. 

iideratum^  desiderata;  emphasis^  emphases;  criterion^  criteria; 
hypothesis^  hypotheses  ;  radius^  radii  ;  seraph^  seraphim  ;  vertex^ 
vertices.  Some  foreign  words,  by  common  use,  have  acquired 
also  the  English  plural  form:  Medium^  mediums  '  memorandum., 
memorandums  ;  formula^  formulas  ;  genius^  geniuses  (when  per- 
sons of  genius  are  meant) ;  genius.,  genii  (when  aerial  spirits  are 
meant). 

For  more  particular  rules,  and  exceptions  under  them,  and  more 
numerous  examples,  some  English  Grammar  may  be  consulted.  In 
conformity  to  the  above  rules,  may  be  written  out  the  following 

Exercises. 

Correct  the  form  of  the  nouns,  when  they  reqmre  it,  in 
the  following  examples : 

The  heros  of  the  Revolution.  The  echos  are  remarkably  numer- 
ous. I  counted  fourteen  ladys.  There  were  three  loafs  of  bread. 
The  Pompies  of  the  age.  The  Tullies  of  America.  Had  I  three 
lifes  to  spend,  the}^  should  all  be  given.  Those  men  were  remark- 
able genii.  The  Mussulmen  of  Persia  are  great  opponents  of  Chris- 
tianity. These  things  may  be  used  as  talismen.  I  saw  three 
man-servants  and  two  woman-servants.  Use  two  spoonsful  of 
saleratus,  and  three  handsful  of  flour.  How  many  die  were 
thrown?  How  many  penny  was  it  worth?  How  many  pence 
have  you  ?  The  Mr.  Taylors.  Miss  Jane  and  Sarah  Porters.  The 
Messrs.  Harpers  and  Appletons.  The  army  had  two  commander- 
in-chiefs.  He  was  tried  by  several  court-martials,  ^he  had  two 
father-in-laws.  The  datums  are  incorrect.  Margaret  had  too 
many  beaus.  There  were  five  stratums  of  rocks.  Five  seraphims 
were  engaged  in  worship.  All  the  radiuses  of  the  same  circle  are 
equal.  The  emphasises  are  not  correctly  laid.  Bishop  Carter  and 
Lewis.  Mind  your  ^s  and  ^-s.  Dot  your  is  and  cross  your  fo. 
Look  well  at  the  -I-  s  and  —  s.  He  employed  only  tlie  dreg  of 
his  time.  Have  you  learned  the  tiding  of  the  battle  ?  He  had  two 
pairs  of  drawer.  He  made  amend  to  me  and  this  was  the  mean  of 
avoiding  a  contest.  He  employed  guns  and  pistols,  and  by  this 
means  overpowered  me.  How  many  molasses  did  you  purchase? 
His  riches  was  great. 


THE   GENDEK   OF   ITODNS.  23 


LESSON  VI. 

NOUNS. THEIR   GENDER. 


1.  Nouns  are  of  several  kinds,  so  far  as  they  denote 
objects  of  the  male  sex,  of  the  female,  or  of  neither  sex, 
and  are  thus  called  nouns  of  the  Masculme^  or  Feminine^  or 
Neuter  Gender,  Nouns  which  denote  living  beings,  and 
yet  do  not  determine  to  which  sex  these  belong,  are  nouns 
of  the  Common  Gender  ;  as,  parent^  teacher,^  sheep^  cousin. 
They  are  names  which  may  in  common,  or  equally,  be  ap- 
plied to  beings  of  either  sex.  The  pronouns,  Ae,  she^  it^ 
are  substituted  for  nouns  of  the  first  three  classes,  respect- 
ively. He  or  she  may  be  substituted  for  any  noun  of 
Common  Gender. 

2.  The  sexes  are  distinguished — 

(1.)  By  the  use  of  different  words;  as,  husband^  wife ;  friar^ 
nun ;  ram  or  huclc^  ewe  ;  uncle^  aunt^  &c. :  or  (2),  By  a  different 
ending,  as  haron^  haroness ;  duhe^  duchess;  songster^  songstress: 
or  (3),  By  prefixing  a  word  to  distinguish  the  sex  ;  as,  a  man- 
servant,  a  ma^<^-servant ;  a  ^6-goat,  a  sA^-goat. 

3.  Some  nouns,  which  describe  things  that  are  without 
sex,  may  be  changed,  by  a  figure  of  speech  (called  Per- 
sonification), into  masculine  or  feminine. 

When  an  object  of  strength,  or  power,  or  sublimity  is  spoken 
ot,  it  is  thus  spoken  of  as  a  mascuhne  object;  when  an  object  of 
delicacy  or  beauty  is  described,  it  is  viewed  as  feminine.  Of  tlie 
sun  it  is  said,  '^  He  has  risen ;"  of  tlie  moon,  ''  She  walks  the  heav- 
ens in  her  beauty."  Wisdom  lifts  up  her  voice,  and  warns.  Tlie 
vessel  sails  well ;  she  hastens  into  the  harbor. 

4.  A  very  young  child,  or  an  animal  whose  sex  it  is  not 
important  to  designate,  is  often  represented  by  the  neuter 
pronoun,  it. 


24  THE    CASES   OF   NOUNS. 

The  masculine  pronoun  is  often  used  in  speaking  of  a  company 
of  both  sexes ;  as,  "  The  school  cannot  prosper  unless  each  pupil 
shall  study  carefully  Ms  lessons." 

The  pronoun  it  is  used  in  the  beginning  of  a  clause  or  sentence, 
and  having  reference  to  a  masculine,  or  feminine  object,  and  to 
one  or  more ;  as.  It  was  he ;  it  was  tliey ;  it  was  «Ae ;  it  is  a 
man  ;  it  is  a  woman 

Exercises. 

Change  the  nouns  in  Italics  for  those  of  a  different 
Gender. 

The  Sultan  of  Turkey.  He  appointed  his  wife  as  his  executor. 
The  widower  has  just  left  town.  I  have  sold  the  ram,  the  stag^  the 
8teer^  the  duch^  the  cat^  and  the  horse.  Would  you  like  the  repu- 
tation of  a  wizard?  The  Earl  is  not  at  home.  The  landlady 
has  returned.  I  want  a  tailoress.  The  gander  is  very  tough. 
Wliat  a  fine  beau  you  are!  What  nieces  has  she?  The  widow 
looked  sad. 


LESSON  VII. 

NOUNS. — THEIR   OASES. 

1.  The  word  case  is  applied  to  a  noun  to  denote  its  con- 
dition, or  the  relation  which  it  bears  to  some  word  or 
ivords  with  which  it  is  connected. 

In  the  sentence  "  John  learns  his  lesson,"  the  word  John  is  that 
of  which  something  is  said — it  is  the  subject  of  the  verb  learns^ 
and  is  thus  in  the  subjective  case  (condition)^  or  nominative  case , 
it  is  the  name  of  the  subject.  Whereas,  in  the  same  sentence,  the 
word  lesson  being  that  upon  which  the  action  expressed  by  the 
verb  rests — in  other  words,  being  the  objiwt  of  the  verb — is  said 
to  be  in  the  objective  case^  or  condition. 

2.  When  a  person  or  thing  is  addressed,  the  name  of 
such  person  or  thing  is  in  the  nominative  case  independent; 
as,  Jo/m,  learn  your  lesson 


THE   CASES   OF   NOUNS.  25 

8.  As  to  form,  the  nominative  and  objective  cases  of 
nouns  have  the  same.  In  pronouns  the  form  is,  in  most 
cases,  different ;  as,  JT,  me  ;  thou^  thee  ;  Ae,  him  ;  she,  he?' ; 
M?6,  us  ;  they,  them, 

4.  Anothei  case  is  the  Possessive,  and  is  used  when  the 
possessor,  source,  or  author  of  a  thing  is  denoted.  It  has 
a  specific  form — that  of  the  nominative,  followed  by  '5 ;  or 
when  the  nominative  ends  in  5,  an  apostrophe  ( ' )  alone  is 
added — so  called  because  it  is  a  turning  off  or  elision  of 
e,  ^,  or  y.  The  same  character  ( ' )  is  also  used  for  the 
possessive  of  the  plural  number  where  no  vowel  is  omitted. 

In  compound  words  the  sign  of  the  possessive  is  placed  at  the 
end ;  as,  father-in-law's  books.  The  '«  is  a  corruption  or  abbrevi- 
ation of  the  old  form  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  Possessive  in  es,  is,  ys. 

5.  A  noun  is  in  the  nominative  case,  not  only  when 
used  as  the  subject  of  a  verb,  but  when  it  is  in  apposition 
to  such  a  subject,  denoting  the  same  person  or  thing ;  as, 
"  Cicero,  the  orator,  flourished  at  Rome." 

A  noun  is  also  in  the  nominative  case  when  it  forms  a  part  of 
the  predicate,  or  description  of  a  subject,  and  denotes  the  same 
person  or  thing  as  the  subject ;  thus,  "  Daniel  Webster  was  a  most 
remarkable  many 

A  noun  is  in  the  objective  case,  not  only  when  it  follows  and 
depends  upon  a  verb  or  participle,  but  when  it  follows  a  prep- 
osition.   John  gave  the  hooJo  to  James.     Beholding  the  sun. 

Exercises. 

Write  out  the  nominative,  possessive,  and  objective  cases 
of  the  following  nouns,  both  in  the  singular  and  plural 
numbers : 

Wife,  husband,  knife,  table,  pony,  hoof,  muff,  stony,  tax,  lady, 
church,  sexton,  ox,  lash,  valley,  penny,  Charles,  fairy,  hen,  lynx, 
negro,  thief,  court-martial.     Thus : 

N^om.  wife,  Foss.  wife's,  Ohj.  wife ;  J^om.  wives,  Foss.  wives', 
Ohj,  wives. 

2 


26  EXERCISES   ON   PERSONAL   PRONOUNS. 


LESSON  VIII. 

PRONOUNS. — PERSONAL    PRONOUNS. 

1.  These  are  substitutes  for  nouns,  and  are  used  for  the 
purpose  of  avoiding  the  disagreeable  repetition  of  the  name 
of  a  thing  or  person  in  a  sentence.  The  hteral  meaning  of 
Pronoun^  \s>  for-7iou7i. 

Its  convenience  and  utility  are  apparent  in  the  following  sen- 
tences :  "  Then  Judah  came  near  unto  him  and  said,  O  my  lord, 
let  thy  servant,  I  pray  thee,  speak  a  word  in  my  lord's  ears,  and  let 
not  thine  anger  turn  against  thy  serv^ant.  Thou  saidst  unto  thy 
servants.  Except  your  younger  brother  come  down  with  you,  ye 
shall  see  my  face  no  more."  Without  the  pronoun,  these  sen- 
tences must  read  thus :  "  Then  Judah  came  near  unto  Joseph,  and 
said,  O  lord  of  Judah,  let  Judah  the  servant  of  Joseph,  Judah 
prays  Josei)h,  speak  a  word  in  the  ears  of  Judah's  lord,  and  let 
not  the  anger  of  Joseph  turn  against  the  servant  of  Joseph.  Jo- 
seph said  unto  the  servants  of  Joseph,  Except  the  younger  brother 
of  Judah,  Reuben,  Simeon,  Levi,"  &c. 

2.  A  Personal  Pronoun  is  a  substitute  for  the  names  of 
persons,  or  of  things  personified,  i.  e.,  of  things  spoken  of  or 
to  as  persons. 

Of  these  pronouns  there  arc  live,  /,  tJiou^  he^  she^  it;  and  their 
plurals,  we^  ye  or  you^  they.  These  are  used  as  the  subjects  of  a 
verb. 

When  these  pronouns  indicate  the  possessor  or  source  of  any 
thing,  they  undergo  a  change  of  form;  thus,  my  ot  mine;  thy 
or  thine;  his^  hers^  its ;  our  or  ours ;  your  or  yours;  their  or 
theirs. 

Personal  Pronouns,  when  they  stand  for  names  that  are  the 
oVects  of  an  action  or  relation  (standing  after  a  verh,  or  a  prepo- 
sition), take  the  following  forms:  me,  thee  or  you.,  him^  her^  it^ 
lis.  them. 


EXERCISES    ON   PERSONAL    PRONOUNS.  27 

Exercises. 

1.  Write  a  phrase  or  sentence  containing  Personal  pro- 
nouns of  the  first  person,  singular  and  plural,  in  the  posses- 
sive case. 

2.  Containing  pronouns  of  the  second  person,  singular 
and  plural,  possessive  case. 

3.  Containing  pronouns  of  the  third  person,  singular  and 
plural,  possessive  case. 

4.  Containing  pronouns,  singular  and  plural,  in  the  objec- 
tive case — of  the  first  person,  second  person,  third  person. 

5.  Correct  the  personal  pronouns  that  stand  in  the  wrong 
case. 

Even  good  authors,  quoted  below,  make  frequent  mistakes  in 
this  particular ;  as,  "  She  suffers  hourly  more  than  mey  It  should 
be,  "than  /,"  that  is,  than  I  do^  the  word  than  being,  in  this  sen- 
tence, only  a  conjunction.  Than  before  whom  is  a  preposition, 
and  requires  the  objective  case ;  as,  ''  Than  whom  there  is  no  bet* 
ter  man."  "  All  slept  save  she^  It  should  be  her^  being  the  ob 
ject  of  the  preposition  save. 

Write  the  following  sentences  correctly : 

There  was  no  one  in  the  house  save  we  two.  All,  save  I,  were 
at  rest.  Nor  hope  to  make  others  such  as  me.  It  is  him  who  did 
this.  It  is  not  fit  for  such  as  us  to  sit  with  the  rulers  of  the  land. 
Let  he  that  looks  after  them,  look  on  his  hand.  I  will  be  her 
whose  foot  the  waves  wet  not.  She  exclaimed  on  Hastings,  you, 
and  I.  Ask  the  murderer,  he  who  has  steeped  his  hands,  &c. 
Sorrow  not  as  them  who  have  no  hope.  Holland  and  thee  did 
each  in  other  live.  We  are  alone,  here's  none  but  thee  and  I. 
Him  shall  never  come  again  to  we ;  but  we  shall  surely  one  day 
go  to  he.  She  is  sold  like  thou.  He  was  much  older  than  her. 
They  were  more  terrified  than  us.  It  was  thee  who  went  hence. 
Unless  you  are  the  masters,  and  not  me.  They  must  have  been  as 
glad  as  us  to  escape.  Stimulated  by  the  approbation  of  better 
judges  than  them,  she  turned  to  their  literature,  &c.  I  know  not 
whom  else  are  expected.  The  village  lawyer,  whose  Burns  was 
him  of  the  justice  and  law  ecclesiastical. 


28  EXERCISES   ON   PERSONAL   PRONOUNS. 

6.  As  pronouns  supply  the  place  of  nouns,  it  is  essential 
to  perspicuity  that  they  should  distinctly  point  to  the  nouns 
which  they  stand  for. 

The  following  passage  from  Goldsmith's  History  of  Greece,  is 
very  faulty  in  this  respect : — "  He  wrote  to  that  distinguished  phi- 
osopher,  begging  of  Mm  to  come  and  undertake  Ms  education, 
and  to  bestow  on  Mm  those  lessons  of  virtue  which  every  great 
man  ought  to  possess,  and  which  his  numerous  avocations  render- 
ed impossible  to  Mm^  Confusion  follows  from  the  different  offices 
which  the  pronoun  lie  is  here  made  to  perform :  first,  it  stands  for 
Philip,  then  for  Aristotle,  next  for  Alexander,  again  for  Alexan- 
der, then  twice  for  Philip.  To  clear  the  sentence  of  ambiguity, 
instead  of  ^^Ms  education^''''  it  should  have  been  "  Ais  son's  educa- 
tion;'''' and  instead  of  ''''Ms  numerous  awcations^''  it  should  have 
been  "  A^5  own  numerous  allocations.'''' 

Y.  In  the  following  sentence  there  is  also  an  ambiguous 
use  of  the  personal  pronoun  : 

"  Jesus  came  from  Nazareth,  and  was  baptized  of  John  in  Jor- 
dan ;  and  straightway  coming  up  out  of  the  water  tie  saw  the 
heavens  opened,  and  the  Spirit,  like  a  dove,  descending  upon  Am." 
Does  he  refer  to  Jesus  or  to  John,  and  on  which  did  the  Spirit  de- 
scend ?  The  passage  itself  does  not  clearly  determine  the  ques- 
tion. It  would  seem  to  teach  that  Jesus  saw  the  Spirit  descending 
on  John ;  but  the  meaning  intended  is  that  John  saw  the  Spirit 
descending  on  Jesus." 

8.  Correct  the  ambiguity  in  the  following  passages : 

"In  his  days  Pharaoh-Nechoh,  king  of  Egypt,  went  up  against 
the  King  of  Assyria,  to  the  river  Euphrates,  and  King  Josiah  went 
against  him,  and  he  slew  him  at  Megiddo,  when  he  had  seen  him." 
— 2  Kings  xxiii.  29. 

"  The  Son  of  Man  sRall  be  delivered  up  to  the  chief-priests,  and 
to  the  scribes,  and  they  shall  condemn  him  to  death,  and  deliver 
liim  to  the  Gentiles,  and  they  shall  mock  him,"  &c. 

In  the  first  of  the  above  passages,  is  it  taught  that  Pharaoh  killed 
Josiah,  or  that  Josiah  killed  Pharaoh  ?  The  context  must  be  con- 
sulted, to  make  the  requisite  correction. 

In  the  second  passage,  it  is  undecided  whether  the  Gentiles 
alone,  or  the  chief-priests  and  scribes  also,. mocked  the  Saviour. 


COMPOUND    AND    RELATIVE   PRONOUNS.  29 


LESSON  IX. 

PRONOUNS. — COMPOUND    PERSONAL,    RELATIVE,    ETC. 

1.  The  word  self  is  often  added  to  the  personal  pronouns, 
iny^  thy^  him^  her^  it^  our^  your^  them^  making  an  emphatic 
compound:  thus,  myself  <fcc.,  ourselves^  &c.  These  com- 
pound pronouns  are  used  in  only  two  cases — the  nominative 
and  objective. 

2.  Relative  Pronouns  are  words  that  stand  for  and  re- 
late to  some  person  or  thing  previously  mentioned,  or  to 
some  preceding  phrase,  which  is  called  an  Antecedent,  The 
relative  pronouns  perform  the  office  of  a  conjunction,  in 
connecting  clauses  or  sentences.  They  are  who^  which^ 
that^  what. 

Who  is  applied  only  to  persons ;  which^  to  mere  animals 
and  things ;  that^  to  persons  or  things.  Who  is  applied  to 
things  when  these  are  personified.  What  is  equivalent  to 
that  which^  or  those  which.  What  and  that  are  used  only 
in  the  nominative  and  objective  cases.  Who  and  which 
are  the  same  in  singular  and  plural.  Their  cases  stand 
thus : 

ITom.     Who.  Which. 

Poss.     Whose.  Whose. 

Olj.       Whom.  Which. 

WJiat  is  applied  to  things,  and  is  used  only  when  the  antece- 
dent is  onaitted  ;  as,  ''He  saw  what  he  desired,"  that  is,  "He  saw 
the  thing  which  he  desired." 

That  is  a  relative,  wlien  in  place  of  it  wlio^  which^  or  whom  may 
be  used.  It  is  an  adjective  pronoun  wlien  it  defines  or  limits  a 
noun;  as,  "  That  hooh  is  excellent."  It  is  a  demonstrative  pro- 
noun when  it  is  not  relative,  but  points  out  the  object  to  which  it 
refers.  It  is  a  conjunction  wlien  it  merely  connects  sentences  ;  as, 
"He  studies  that  he  may  learn." 


30  EXERCISES   ON   PE0N0UN9. 

The  antecedent  is  not  always  expressed ;  as,  "  Who  worship  God 
are  the  objects  of  his  favor;"  that  is,  ''  They  who  worship,"  &c 
"Whom  the  Lord  loveth  he  chasteneth;"  that  is,  "ffimwhom 
the  Lord,"  &c.,  or,  "  Those  whom  the  Lord,"  &c. 

3.  The  Compound  Relatwe  Pronouns  are  whoever^ 
whichever^  whatever^  whosoever^  whichsoever^  lohatsoever. 
These  have  the  same  construction  as  what. 

4.  TFAo,  lohich.,  and  loAa^,  when  employed  in  asking 
questions,  take  the  name  of  Interrogative  Nou7is, 

Who  is  applied  to  persons,  which  and  what  to  persons  and 
things. 

Who  applies  to  the  name  inquired  for,  which  to  the  individual, 
what  to  profession,  occupation,  character ;  as.  Who  wrote  the 
"Paradise  Lost?"  which  Milton  was  it?  what  was  his  character? 

Exercises. 

1 .  Supply  the  pronouns  that  are  omitted  in  the  folio wmg 
sentences. 

shall  I  say  1     To did  he  direct   his   speech  ?     

crosses  the  bridge  must  pay  toll.     You  know  not I  am.     I 

will   not   ask— — you  are.     Tell  me  in town  you  live,  in 

street,  in house.     I  found I  sought.     son  are 

you  ?     Did  he  find horse  ?     He labors  hard  will  succeed. 

sins  will  be  punished.    is  a  beautiful  dress you  wear. 

This  is  the  horse ran  away.     I  know book  is  yours.     I 

know is  wanted.     I  love loves  me.     seek  me  early 

shall  find  me.     To did  you  report ?     By skill  was 

it  done  ?     By did  he  suffer  ?     would  become  rich,  must 

be  industrious.     influence  is  good. 

2.  Supply  antecedents. 

who  steals  my  purse,  steals  trash.    who  does  no  good, 

does  harm.     who  was  hurt,  has  recovered. 

3.  Correct  the  pronouns  here  used. 

The  boy  which  brought  the  mail,  has  gone.  Have  you  seen  the 
house  v/hat  I  bought?     Where  is  the  man  which  inquired  for  ino ? 


EXERCISES    ON    PRONOUNS.  81 

Who  man  was  it  ?  The  cow  who  leaped  the  fence.  Which  was 
his  character?  There  were  three  dogs  whom  he  drove  away. 
Who  of  these  have  I  treated  badly  ?  He  treated  she  badly.  This 
is  the  man  as  I  saw.     This  is  the  woman  as  is  not  to  be  surpassed. 

4.  Substitute  the  compound  relative  instead  of  the  ante- 
cedent and  relative  here  used. 

Any  person  who  transgresses  the  law,  commits  sin.  Any  thing 
that  gives  pain  to  other  beings  should  be  avoided.  He  who  is 
simple,  let  him  turn  hither.     To  every  one  you  meet  give  friendly 

salutation. 

5.  Supply  the  relative. 

There  is  nothing  places  religion  in  so  disadvantageous  a  view. 
It  has  been  remarked,  there  is  nothing  discovers  the  true  temper 
of  a  person  so  much  as  his  letters.  There  is  Miss  Liddy,  can 
dance  a  jig,  write  a  good  hand,  &c. 

In  common  discourse,  or  familiar  writing,  the  relative 
may  often  be  omitted,  where  in  solemn  or  dignified  dis- 
course, it  should  be  used ;  as,  "  This  is  the  man  I  spoke 
of;"  "this  is  the  road  he  travelled."  Is  there  a  God  to 
swear  by  ?  Is  there  none  to  believe  in  ?  Is  there  none  to 
trust  to  ? 

Supply  the  relative  in  the  sentences  just  quoted. 

6.  As  pronouns  and  nouns  that  depend  on  the  same 
verb  or  preposition,  should  be  in  the  same  case,  that  is,  in 
the  objective,  correct  the  following  sentences  wherein  this 
principle  is  violated. 

He  came  to  teach  my  sister  and  I.  Let  you  and  I  go  and  walk. 
Put  up  those  gloves  for  Clara  and  I.  Between  you  and  I,  he  is  a 
great  villain.  Letters  have  just  been  received  for  you  and  I.  Let 
you  and  I  endeavor  to  improve. 

7.  Correct  the  wrong  case  of  the  pronoun  in  the  follow- 
ing examples. 

Who  do  you  depend  on  for  protection?  The  person  whom  yoa 
exi)ected  would  perform  the  work,  has  not  appeared.     He  whom 


82  ADJECTIVE   PK0N0UN8. 

they  intend  shall  execute  it.  You  would  find  three  or  four  in  the 
parlor  after  dinner,  whom  (you  would  say)  passed  their  time 
agreeably.  Who  servest  thou  under?  He  whom  you  pretend 
reigns  in  heaven. 

8.  Correct  the  pronouns  in  the  following  passages,  so  that 
there  shall  be  no  inconsistency  in  Niimher  and  Gender, 

Be  as  troublesome  as  you  please,  I  shall  never  own  that  thou 
art  an  evil.  The  Simise  cannot  easily  walk  upright,  because  its 
foot  rests  on  the  outer  edge,  &c.  The  wicked  are  suffered  to 
flourish,  till  the  sum  of  his  iniquities  is  full.  Yet  you,  my  Cre- 
ator, detest  me,  thy  creature,  to  whom  thou  art  bound,  &c.  His 
design  was  to  render  Athens  a  maritime  city,  in  which  he  fol- 
lowed a  very  different  system  of  politics  from  their  former  gov- 
ernors. Egypt  was  glad  at  their  departure,  for  they  were  afraid 
of  them. 


LESSON  X. 

ADJECTIVE   PRONOUNS,    OR   PRONOMINAL   ADJECTIVES. 

1.  These  are  pronouns  which  perform  the  office  of  limit- 
ing, or  qualifying,  or  designating  nouns. 

2.  When  they  point  out  objects  definitely,  they  are  called 
demonstrative  :  they  are  this  and  that  in  the  singular ;  these 
and  those  in  the  plural.  This  and  these  refer  to  nearer  ob- 
jects ;  that  and  those  to  more  remote. 

3.  When  pronouns  represent  objects  taken  separately, 
they  are  called  distributive :  they  are  each^  every ^  either^ 
neither. 

4.  When  they  denote  objects  indefinitely,  they  are  call- 
ed indefinite ;  as,  one^  hoth^  any^  none^  all^  such^  whole^ 
other^  another^  few^  many^  much^  several. 

One  and  otlier  are  used  also  as  nouns  in  hoth  singular  and 
phiral,  being  declined,  One^  one' 8^  one ;  ones^  ones\  ones :  Other^ 
othev\%  other ;  others^  others'^  others. 


EXERCISES   ON    ADJECTIVE   PRONOUNS.  33 

Another  is  used  only  in  the  singular,  in  the  three  cases.  It  re- 
fers to  one  of  many,  the  other  refers  to  one  of  two ;  as,  "  Here 
are  five  apples,  take  this  one,  or  another  f'  ^^  Here  are  two  apples, 
take  this  one  or  the  other. ''\ 

It  is  sometimes  used  indefinitely ;  as.  It  seems  it  suited  him. 
So  in  the  phrases,  ^^ It  rains,"  '^it  snows,"  &c.,  it  stands  for  the 
producing  cause  of  these  events,  or  to  external  nature. 

Aught  is  often  erroneously  written  ought. 

Either  refers  only  to  one  of  two  things,  and  not  to  one  of  more 
than  two  things. 

N'either^  in  like  manner,  refers  only  to  two  things. 

iVb  one^  none^  may  be  used  in  relation  to  more  than  two  objects. 

J5Jach  is  connected  Avith  a  singular  and  not  with  a  plural  pro- 
noun— that  is,  with  he^  him^  her^  she^  it ;  not  with  they^  them  ;  as, 
''''Each  had  his  place  appointed,  each  his  course."  ^^ Each  man 
dreamed  his  dream ;"  not  their  dream. 

Etery.,  like  each^  is  also  distributive,  and  must  be  used  in  the 
same  manner. 

The  above  distributive  pronouns  require  the  verbs  of  which  they 
are  subjects  to  be  in  the  singular  number ;  as,  "  Each  man  hoA 
his  share." 

Either  is  sometimes  wrongly  used  in  place  of  each.    The  former 
means  one  of  two,  while  each  signifies  both  distributively ;  as,  ' 
'^  Place  them  on  either  side,"  means  on  one  or  the  other  indiffer- 
ently, not  on  both  sides ;  but  "  Place  them  on  each  side,"  means  on 
both  sides. 

The  distributive  e'cery  is  sometimes  improperly  used  for  any. 
The  former  means  all,  one  by  one ;  any  means  one  out  of  all,  the 
particular  one  not  being  denoted. 

None.^  being  a  contraction  of  no  one.,  should  not  be  employed  to 
express  plurality,  or  as  equivalent  to  no  ones. 

All^  which  is  a  collective  adjective,  is  sometimes  improperly 
used  for  every.,  which  is  distributive,  and  applies  to  individuals. 

f  Exercises. 

Correct  the  following  sentences  in  accordance  with  the 
observations  in  this  Lesson  : 

Six  men  attacked  him.  but  neither  of  them  were  identified 


34      ^  ADJECTIVES. 

Either  of  these  three  steel-pens  will  write  well.  Neither  of  these 
four  apologies  commend  themselves  to  my  approval.  On  either 
side  of  the  river  was  the  tree  of  life.  The  house  of  Baal  was  full 
from  one  end  to  another.  Let  them^  strike  him  till  you  cannot 
tell  one  foot  from  another.  Two  women  shall  be  grinding  at  the 
mill,  the  one  shall  be  taken,  and  another  left.  Prose  and  poetry 
are  so  different  one  from  another,  that  the  one  will  hinder  rntlier 
ill  an  assist  the  other.  One  end  is  as  thick  as  another.  Myriads 
of  bats  were  hanging  one  to  the  other.  Diodorus  is  of  more  credit 
than  Plutarch,  or 'any  other  who  write  lines  by  the  lump.  And 
they  dreamed  a  dream,  both  of  them,  each  man  their  dream.  And 
they  were  judged  every  man  according  to  their  works.  Each  of 
the  class  have  their  places  assigned.  I  saw  every  man  with  their 
weapons  in  hand.  Have  you  ought  of  strength  left?  When  one 
has  left  ones  house,  regret  is  ever  felt.  Ones  health  demands 
care.  How  are  the  one's?  Are  your  little  ones'  as  dear  to  you  as 
mine  are  to  me?  Neither  of  the  four  samples  are  such  as  I  ex- 
pected. Each  one  of  the  letters  bear  date  after  his  return.  They 
crucified  two  others  with  him  on  either  side  one,  and  Jesus  in  the 
midst.  The  weakness  of  their  wall  every  earthquake  might  over- 
throw. The  idea  tree  is  applicable  to  any  tree,  and  may  therefore 
be  regarded  as  one  nature  common  to  all  individual  trees.  Are 
either  of  those  five  men  guilty?  Neither  of  them  are  guilty. 
Each  of  them  in  their  turn  were  dismissed. 


LESSON   XI. 

ADJECTIVES. 

An  Adjective  is  a  word  adjected  or  added  to  a  Noun  to 
define  its  number,  size,  form,  or  quality ;  as,  four^  small^ 
rounds  sweety  good. 

The  Adjective  does  not  vary  its  form  to  accommodate  the  num- 
ber, or  gender,  or  case  of  the  noun.  It  is  the  same  for  nouns  of 
either  number,  any  gender  and  case.  Thus,  three  men,  three 
women.  A  good  boy,  good  boys.  I  saw  a  modest  youth ;  a  modest 
youth  saw  me. 


ABJECIIVES.  85 

2.  Adjectives,  for  convenience,  have  been  reduced  to  tho 
following  classes  : 

(1.)  Proper:  such  as  are  derived  from  a  proper  name;  as, 
American^  frora  America  ;   Calif ornian^  from  California. 

(2.)  Common :  expressing  quality,  and  not  derived,  like  the 
former,  from  a  proper  name ;  as,  active^  dull. 

(8.)  Pronominal  :  being  sometimes  used  as  a  pronoun,  and 
sometimes  as  an  adjective.  Of  this  class  are  some  already  con- 
sidered in  preceding  lessons ;  as,  all^  none^  any,  such,  some,  both, 
other,  another  ;  this,  that,  these,  those,  each,  either,  every,  neither  ; 
former,  latter,  much,  many,  few,  several.  Some  of  these  belong 
to  the  class  of 

(4.)  Numerals:  as,  frst,  second,  &c. ;  one,  two,  &c. ;  single^ 
double,  &c. 

(5.)  Participial  in  form,  but  having  no  relation  to  time ;  as  a 
Icnowing  man,  a  loving  wife. 

(6.)  Compound :  those  compounded  of  two  or  more  words 
connected  by  a  hyphen  ;  as,  long-lost  son,  woe-hegone  face. 

(7.)  Sometimes  nouns  are  used  as  adjectives ;  as,  an  ir^/i  bed- 
stead ;  a  stone  wall ;  a  glass  inkstand. 

3.  As  to  the  position  of  the  Adjective^  it  usually  stands 
before  the  noun,  but  sometimes  is  placed  more  advan- 
tageously after  it.     As,  for  example  : 

(1.)  When  it  is  qualified  or  affected  by  some  other  words  follow- 
ing it ;  as,  "  He  is  a  man  great  in  his  own  conceit."  "  He  is  a  man 
learned  in  all  such  matters."  So  also  (2),  when  several  adjec- 
tives qualify  a  noun,  they  should  take  a  position  after  it ;  as,  she 
is  a  woman,  refined,  courteous,  beneficent,  and  yet  humble.  The 
adjective  is  also  (3)  placed  after  the  noun  for  the  saTce  of  empha- 
sis ;  as,  *' Virtue  most  mature.''^  Also  (4),  when  an  adverb  pre- 
cedes the  adjective;  as,  "a  horse  truly  elegant."  Also  (5),  when 
an  adjective  is  used  as  a  title;  as,  "Napoleon  the  Third ;^''  Wash- 
ington the  goody  Adjectives  (6)  that  qualify  pronouns  are  placed 
after  them,  generally;  as,  "He  left  me  very  sad?"*  (7.)  In  the 
structure  of  verse  it  often  becomes  necessary;  as,  "Canst  thou 
not  minister  to  a  mind  diseasedV  (8.)  In  introducing  a  senti- 
ment, an  emphatical  adjective  may,  on  the  other  hand,  be  placed 


36  EXERCISES    ON    ADJECTIVES. 

some  distance  in  advance  of  the  noun  or  pronoun  which  it  qnali* 
fies;  as,  '''-Qlad  am  I  to  see  you." 

Exercises. 

1.  Supply  the  blanks  with  Proper  Adjectives. 

prophet.     rhubarb.     tobacco.      coffee. 

literature.     commerce.      books.     writings. 

synagogue. 

2.  Supply  the  blanks  with  suitable  Common  Adjectives. 

rice. anclior.     angel.      clangor.     

grapes.      lesson.      demagogue.      dialogue.     

fatigue.     glutton.     mason.     season. 

3.  Supply  the  blanks  with  Pronominal  Adjectives. 

person.      house.      grove.      sailor.      

hen.     parents.     ships.     hymn.     tree. 

4.  Supply  the  blanks  with  l!^umeral  Adjectives. 

chapter.    verse.    line.     penny.    dol- 
lars.      pounds.     ounces. 

5.  Supply  the  blanks  with  Participial  Adjectives. 

girl.    boy.    •  disposition.    character.    

story.     event.     calamity.     ■  exploit. 

6.  Supply  the  blanks  with  Compound  Adjectives. 
people..    country.     citizen.     home. 

7.  Supply  the  blanks  with   Nouns  that  may  serve  as 
Adjectives. 

barn.     house.     ship.     column. 

8.  Change  the  position  of  the  Adjective. 

The  man  is  poor  who  has  not  the  friendship  of  God.     ITie 
woman  is  wise  who  adorns  herself  with  piety. 


ADJECTIVES. DEGREES    OF    QUALITY.  27 


LESSON  XII. 

ADJECTIVES. — DEGREES    OF    QUALITY   EXPRESSED 

1.  Adjectives  in  many  cases  express  qualities  which,  may 
vary  in  degree  in  different  objects.  The  simple  form  oi 
the  Adjective  expi^esses  the  simple  quality :  as  wise,  cold, 
learned, 

A  higher  degree  of  quality  (usually  called  Comparative) 
is  expressed  by  adding  r  or  er  to  the  simple  form,  or  by 
prefixing  the  word  more :  as,  iviser,  colder,  more  learned. 

The  highest  degree  {Superlative)  is  denoted  by  adding  st 
or  est  to  the  simple  form,  or  by  prefixing  the  word  most; 
as,  wisest,  coldest,  most  learned.  More  and  most  are  used 
chiefly  to  modify  long  words — those  of  more  than  two  syl- 
lables. 

2.  The  degree  of  quality  may  vary  in  an  opposite  direc- 
tion. Thfs  is  expressed  by  using  the  words  less  and  least 
before  the  adjectives — also  by  adding  to  the  adjective  the 
syllable  ish  /  as,  blue^5A,  that  is,  slightly  blue ;  less  ugly ; 
least  ugly. 

These  syllables  raore,  most,  &c.,  may  be  regarded  as  making 
with  the  adjective  a  compound  adjective. 

Some  adjectives  are  irregular  in  tlie  mode  of  expressing  varying 
degrees  of  quality;  thus,  good,  hetter,  best;  many,  more,  most; 
little,  less,  least. 

3.  Sometimes  comparison  is  made  by  certain  intensive 
words ;  as,  far,  by  far,  extremely,  uncommonly,  very,  ex- 
oeedingly,  j^laced  before  the  simple  comparative,  or  super- 
lative form  of  the  adjective. 

The  words  somewhat,  little,  much,  so,  almost^  still,  yet,  &c.,  are 
sometimes  employed  to  modify  the  adjective. 

4.  Other  adjectives  do  not  properly  admit  of  increase  or 


38  EXEKCISES    ON    ADJECTIVES. 

decrease  in  meaning,  and,  hence,  neither  in  their  form ;  as, 
square^  triangular^  circular^  &c. ;  one^  two^  <fcc. ;  almighty^ 
chiefs  extreme^  infinite^  perfect.  Yet  we  find  many  such 
adjectives  used  in  the  comparative  and  superlative  form, 
but,  when  so  used,  the  adjective,  in  its  positive  or  simple 
form,  is  not  used  in  its  fullest  possible  extent  of  meaning, 
but  only  as  approximating  to  it.  Thus,  we  say,  John  is  a 
^nore  perfect  speaker  than  Andrew. 

5.  Observe  that  when  two  objects  or  persons  are  com- 
pared, the  comparative  degree  only  is  employed  ;  when  one 
or  more  objects  are  compared  with  more  than  one,  the  su- 
perlative only  is  to  be  used.  Very  rarely,  a  double  super- 
lative is  used  by  good  writers ;  "  This  was  the  most  un- 
hindest  cut  of  all." 

Exercises. 

1.  Correct  the  following  passages  : 

Mary  is  the  kindest  of  the  two.  She  never  appeared  more 
beautifuler.  He  is  the  most  good  of  all.  He  is  the  more  learned 
of  the  three.  She  is  learneder  than  he.  This  is  bluisher  than 
that.  Our  God  is  more  almighty  than  the  gods  of  the  heathen. 
He  is  lesser  cross  than  formerly.  This  landscape  is  more  infinite 
than  the  one  we  observed  yesterday.  I  am  least  wise  than  you. 
That  is  the  most  perfectest  recitation  of  the  two.  It  is  more  ea- 
sier to  play  than  to  study.     My  farm  is  more  square  than  yours. 

2.  Supply  the  blanks  with  adjectives  in  the  compara- 
tive degree,  both  of  the  increasing  and  of  the  diminishing 
order. 

hill.     merchant.     money.     uncle.     

grandmother. 

3.  Supply  the  blanks  with  adjectives  that  are  modified 
by  intensive  words  and  those  of  an  opposite  character ;  viz., 
very^  &c.,  and  somevuhat^  &q. 

prince.     bird.     poverty.     disease.     

valley. songster. needle.     station. 


PROPER   AND    IMPROPER    USE   OF   THE    ARTICLE.        39 


LESSON  XIII. 

THE   ARTICLE PROPER   AND    IMPROPER   USE    OP   IT. 

1.  There  are  two  limiting  Adjectives,  an  (or  a),  and  the^ 
which  are  called  Articles.  The  former,  an  or  a,  prefixed  to 
a  noun,  denotes  any  one  of  the  class  indefinitely ;  the  latter, 
ihe^  indicates  some  particular,  definite  object.  An  hour 
=  one  hour,  any  hour,  some  hour.  The  hour  =  one  par- 
ticular hour  that  has  been  referred  to. 

A  is  used  before  a  noun  whose  first  letter  is  a  consonant ; 
an  when  it  is  a  vowel  or  silent  h.  Some  nouns,  however, 
whose  first  letter  is  a  vowel,  commence  with  a  consonant 
sound,  and  require  the  form  of  the  article  to  be  a» 

The  indefinite  article  is  used  only  with  nouns  in  the  sin- 
gular ;  the  definite,  with  nouns  in  either  number. 

2.  The  applications  of  the  indefinite  and  of  the  definite 
article^  and  also  the  principle  on  which  the  absence  of  the 
article  is  founded,  are  thus  illustrated  by  Mr.  Harrison, 
from  sentences  in  the  second  chapter  of  Genesis : 

"  And  the  Lord  God  formed  man  of  the  dust  of  the  earth." 

Man,  not  having  previously  existed. 

''Therefore  shall  a  man  leave  his  father  and  mother." 

Any  man  at  any  future  time. 

^'  And  the  Lord  planted  a  garden  eastward  in  Eden,  and  there  he  put 
the,  man  (before  mentioned)  whom  he  had  formed." 

"  And  the  Lord  God  said,  it  is  not  good  that  the  man  should  be  alone  ; 
I  will  make  him  an  help-meet.' ' 

The  absence  of  the  article  altogether  before  the  term  man  denotes 
the  species  at  large. 

Here  also  may  be  observed  a  marked  distinction  between  the  indefi' 
nite  and  the  definite  article. 

i\.  The  Article  is  not  changed,  as  in  many  other  languages, 
to  suit  the  gender  of  the  noun,  yet  it  is  to  be  regarded  aa 


40         PROPER    AND    IMPROPER    USE    OF   THE    ARTICLE. 

masculine,  feminine,  or  neuter,  according  to  the  gender  of 
the  noun :  and,  hence,  when  it  precedes  nouns  of  different 
genders,  it  should  be  repeated  before  each,  unless  the  nouns, 
by  association,  convey  the  idea  of  unity ;  then  it  requires 
to  be  used  but  once. 

**  I  met  a  man  and  horse"  should  be,  "I  met  a  man  and  a  horge," 
unless  it  be  designed  to  describe  the  two  in  connection,  the  one  riding 
on  the  other,  and  forming  a  sort  of  compound  animal.  It  may  be 
proper  to  say,  "The  man  and  wife,"  or  "The  father  and  mother  of 
the  child,"  because  so  closely  associated  in  life ;  but  "the  girl  and 
boy,"  "the  house  and  trees,"  would  not  be  proper  forms  of  expres- 
sion. They  should  be  "  the  boy  and  the  girl,"  "the  house  and  the 
trees." 

The  same  principle  should  be  observed  in  using  other  adjec- 
tives; thus,  '^The  Lords  Spiritual  and  Temporal,"  should  be 
"  The  Lords  Spiritual  and  the  Temporal,"  or  ^'  The  Spiritual  and 
the  Temporal  Lords,"  or  "  The  Spiritual  Lords  and  the  Tem- 
poral." 

4.  Sometimes  the  article  is  improperly  omitted. 

"He  will  guide  you  into  all  truth."  It  should  be  ^^ all  the 
truth,"  as  in  the  Greek  original.  "Thou  art  ray  beloved  Son," 
should  be,  as  in  the  Greek,  "Thou  art  my  Son,  the  beloved." 
"All  the  chief  priests  and  elders  of  the  people,"  &c.,  should  be 
^^the  elders,"  &c.  ^^  Elders  of  the  people"  would  mean  certain 
elders,  but  "  the  elders^''''  the  class.  "  The  pious  remembrance  of 
the  dead  and  limngy  Here  two  distinct  classes  are  confounded 
as  if  they  were  dead  and  alive  at  the  same  time.  "  The  dead  and 
the  living"  is  the  correct  form. 

5.  Sometimes  the  definite  article  is  not  only  superfluous.^ 
hut  injurious  to  the  sense^  as  when  an  additional  description 
of  the  same  subject  is  intended. 

"Even  Terah,  the  father  of  Abraham,  and  the  father  of  Na-, 
chor,"  may  convey  the  idea  that  the  father  of  Abraham  and  theV 
father  of  Nachor  were  different  persons,  whereas  they  were  the 
same  person,  and  to  express  this  fact,  the  reading  should  have 
been,  "  the  father  of  Abniliam  and  of  Nachor."      "  There  are  few 


PROPER    AND    IMPROPER    USE    OF    THE    ARTICLE.         41 

words,"  says  Addison,  ''  in  the  English  language,  which  are  em- 
ployed in  a  more  loose  sense  than  those  of  the  fancy  and  the  imagi- 
nation." The  words  those^of  the  and  the  should  be  omitted,  to 
express  the  idea  intended  by  Addison. 

6.  The  appropriate  and  beautiful  use  of  the  definite  ar- 
tide  will  be  seen  in  the  following  examples  adduced  by 
IJarrison : 

"  They  shall  fall  by  the  sword,  by  (lie  famine,  and  by  ihe  pestilence,'' 
thus  properly  marking  the  distinctness  of  the  instruments  employed. 
"They  would  still  maintain  tlie  virtue,  the  felicity,  and  the  empire  of 
the  Roman  people;"  here  virtue,  felicity,  and  empire,  being  all  dis- 
tinct objects,  are  so  represented.  "The  coming  Messiah  had  been 
more  frequently  represented  under  the  character  of  a  king  and  con- 
queror, than  under  that  of  a  prophet,  a  martyr,  or  the  Son  of  God." 
As  the  character  of  conqueror  was  associated,  especially  in  the  Jewish 
mind,  with  that  of  king,  the  article  is  not  repeated  before  conqueror  ; 
but  as  prophet  and  martyr  are  not  necessarily  connected,  the  article  is 
applied  to  each.  Again,  before  the  word  son,  the  definite  article  is  ne- 
cessary, to  indicate  that  the  Messiah  was  God's  only  Son,  and  not  one 
of  many,  as  the  indefinite  article  would  have  hinted. 

Another  instance — "For  this  cause  came  I  into  the  world,  that  I 
should  bear  witness  unto  the  truth.  Every  one  that  is  of  the  truth, 
heareth  my  voice.  Pilate  saith  unto  him,  What  is  truth?"  Christ 
uses  the  definite  article  because  he  refers  to  a  particular  system  of 
truths  which  he  came  to  teach.  Pilate  omits  the  article,  for  he  speaks 
of  truth  generally. 

"  I  beseech  you  by  the  meekness  and  gentleness  of  Christ."  The  article 
is  omitted  before  gentleness  ;  it  is  inseparably  connected  with  the  other 
trait,  and  should  not  be  dissevered. 

•7.  The  Indefinite  Article  shoidd  he  repeated  where  the 
things^  persons,  or  qualities  are  in  themselves  distinct,  or 
where  a  distinction  is  to  be  represented.     For  example  : 

*' J.  cool  head,  an  unfeeling  heart,  and  a  cowardly  disposition, 
prompted  him,"  &c.  ^'  Hadrian  was,  by  turns,  an  excellent  prince, 
a  ridiculous  sophist,  and  a  jealous  tyrant."  "This  earth,  a  spot, 
a  grain,  an  atom." 

It  is  improperly  omitted  in  the  following  example:  "He  counted 
equal  vibrations  of  a  pendulum  or  balance-zvheel."  These  instruments 
lunng  distinct  shoulr"  each  be  supplied  with  an  article.     As  now  read. 


4:2         PROPER   AND   IMPROPER   USE   OF   THE   ARTICLE. 

balance-wheel  is  used  as  another  name  for  pendulum.  It  is  proper  to  say, 
*'  He  is  a  negro  or  Ethiopian;"  because  either  epithet  may  designate  the 
same  individual.  But  it  would  be  improper  to  say,  **  He  is  a  Negro  or 
Laplander,"  as  the  latter  term  is  not  synonymous  with  the  former, 

8.  An  erroneous  interchange  of  the  definite  and  indefi- 
nite articles  is  sometimes  made.     For  example : 

"They  (Paul  and  Barnabas)  departed  asunder,  one  from 
another."  If  the  number  departing  had  been  more  than  two,  this 
use  of  the  article  would  be  correct ;  but  the  is  the  proper  article  to 
apply  in  the  present  case. 

9.  When  two  or  more  adjectives  limit  the  same  name,  the 
article  is  prefixed  only  to  the  first  adjective  ;  but  when  sev- 
eral adiectives  belong  severally  to  a  different  object  of  the 
same  name,  eacn  adjective  must  have  an  article.  Thus,  "  a 
red  and  white  rose,"  means  a  rose  partly  red,  partly  white  ; 
but  "  a  red  and  a  white  rose,"  means  two  roses ;  one  red, 
the  other  white. 

10.  When  two  or  more  adjectives  follow  a  noun,  and 
both  are  used  to  designate  the  same  person,  the  article 
should  be  used  only  before  the  first  of  these ;  as,  "  Mr. 
Scribner,  the  bookseller  and  publisher ;"  but,  "  Mr.  Scribner, 
the  bookseller,  and  the  publisher,"  would  indicate  different 
persons,  one  a  bookseller,  the  other  a  pubHsher. 

11.  Before  titles,  there  is  a  repetition  of  the  article;  as, 
"  The  honorable  the  Lord  Mayor  of  London ;"  but  when 
titles,  merely  as  titles,  are  mentioned,  it  is  omitted,  as  "  he 
called  him  Master,^'' 

The  definite  article  is  prefixed  to  an  adjective,  when  the  noun  is 
omitted ;  as  "  the  wise  and  the  good"  (meaning  wise  and  good  per- 
sons) "  are  to  be  imitated." 

12.  The  indefinite  article,  placed  before  plural  nouns 
limited  by  few  and  little.,  and  also  before  any  collective 
noun,  greatly  afifects  the  meaning.  These  adjectives,  with- 
out an  indefinite  article,  bear  their  ordinary  sense  ;  but  the 
article  tends  to  reverse  the  meaning. 


PROPER   AND    IMPROPER    USE    OF    THE    ARTICLE.        48 

As,  ''^few  men  came,"  that  is,  "  not  many,"  an  inconsiderable 
number;  but  "a  few  men  came,"  indicates  a  larger  number — one 
more  worthy  of  mention.  With  an  indefinite  article,  the  meaning 
is  positwe ;  as,  "  A  few  can  reach  the  top,"  implying  that  some 
can ;  but,  "  few  can  reach  the  top,"  is  nearly  equivalent  to  a  neg- 
ntive^  ''  none  can  reach  the  top." 

13.  The  article  should  not  be  used  before  any  noun  tb^it 
is  sufficiently  definite  without  it ;  nor  before  abstract  nouns, 
as,  beauty,  goodness,  &c.  As  "iron  is  hard,"  "goodness 
is  lovely." 

Proper  names,  being  sufficiently  defined,  do  not  take  the  article, 
except  when  a  common  name  is  understood,  as  "  The  Ganges"  (i.  e., 
the  river  Ganges) ;  or,  when  you  would  distinguish  a  particular 
family ;  as,  "  He  was  an  Irving"  (i.  e.,  one  of  the  family  of  Irvings) ; 
or  when  you  would  denote  a  person  eminent  for  some  virtue  or 
vice ;  as,  "  He  was  a  Benedict  Arnold ;"  "  He  was  a  Cicero." 

14.  In  comparing  objects,  if  both  nouns  refer  to  the 
same  person,  the  article  must  be  omitted ;  but  supplied,  it 
they  refer  to  dififerent  persons. 

Thus,  "  He  is  a  better  writer  than  speaker,"  compares  the  difi*er- 
ent  qualifications  of  the  same  person.  "  He  is  a  better  writer 
than  a  speaker,"  compares  him  (not  a  speaker)  with  another  per- 
son who  is  a  speaker. 

The  verbal  noun  admits  the  article  ;  but  when  the  verbal 
noun  retains  its  power  as  a  verb,  it  must  be  omitted.  "  J'Ae 
breaking  of  the  law,  is  sin."  By  breaking  the  law,  you  in- 
cur the  penalty. 

A  general  term  should  not  be  limited  by  an  ai'ticle ;  as, 
^*'Man  is  of  few  days;"  ''Gold  is  valuable." 

Exercises. 

Correct  the  articles  in  the  following  passages,  and  supply 
such  as  are  needed  : 

Do  you  know  such  an  one  ?  He  went  to  an  heavenly  home.  1 
mean  not  the  doer  but  deedr    It  is  a  honor  to  be  here.     He  has  a 


44  THE    VERB. 

upper  room.  She  lived  in  an  age  of  chivalry.  A  great  and  a 
good  man  looks  forward  to  eternity.  The  book  is  equally  fitted  to 
tlie  old  and  young.  The  Old  and  New  Testament.  The  Bible 
tells  us  of  another  and  a  better  world.  He  gave  me  some  such  an 
answer.  Let  us  practise  the  patience  and  tlie  long-suffering.  Her 
father  received  the  title  of  a  lord.  He  claimed  the  title  of  a  gen- 
tleman. Avoid  the  whispering  when  you  are  required  to  study. 
Tie  wa8  addicted  to  the  siqoking  segars.  The  Old  and  the  New 
Testaments.  All  words  which  are  signs  of  complex  ideas  create 
mistake.  The  ecclesiastical  and  secular  powers  concurred.  Neither 
the  man  nor  boy  was  wrong.  Scott,  the  watchmaker  and  the 
jeweller,  went  with  us.  A  lion  is  generous,  a  fox  is  cunning. 
Pliny  younger  is  a  celebrated  writer ;  so  is  Cowper,  poet.  Wisest 
men  sometimes  say  least.  The  gold  is  the  root  of  much  evil. 
The  large  number  of  immigrants  arrived.  Peter  Hermit  led  the 
crusades.  Eead  the  first  and  second  book  of  Geometry.  We 
should  cultivate  graceful  and  courteous.  The  silver  is  not  so  val- 
uable as  the  gold.\  He  formed  an  union.  A  man  is  noblest  work 
of  Creator.  The  guilty  man  ascended  a  scaffold.  Benedict  Ar- 
nold is  Catiline  of  America.  Daniel  Webster  is  Demosthenes  of 
America.  Business  advances  claims  to  not  little  attention.  A  few 
men  are  so  learned  as  he.  Stay  with  me  few  hours.  A  man  may 
be  a  better  linguist  than  a  mathematician.  Fire  is  a  better  servant 
than  master.  He  owned  a  small  and  large  house.  The  old  and 
new  method  of  writing.  He  had  compassion  on  the  poor  and  the 
needy.  A  joyful  and  a  pleasant  thing  it  is  to  be  thankful.  From 
the  chief  priests,  scribes,  and  elders.  David,  the  father  of  Solo- 
mon, and  the  father  of  Absalom.  And  are  choked  with  cares  and 
riches,  and  pleasures  of  this  life.  I  saw  the  General  and  Adju- 
tant.    Arithmetic  is  an  important  branch  of  the  mathematics. 


LESSON   XIV. 

THE  VERB — CLASSES    OF  VERBS. 

1.  The  Verb  is  a  word  which  affirms  or  declares.     That 
of  which  it  affirms  something  is  called  its  sithject ;  as,  Rain 


TRANSITIVE    AND    INTRANSITIVE    VP:RBS.  45 

falls^  Sickness  will  come.     Here  rain  and  sickness  are  sub- 
jects of  the  affirmations  made. 

2.  Sometimes  the  verb  asks  a  question ;  as,  Are  you  go- 
ing f-  Sometimes  it  takes  the  form  of  command ;  as,  Go^ 
Samuel.  Sometimes  it  takes  the  form  of  a  wish  ;  as.  May 
you  excel,  ^Sometimes  that  of  a  condition ;  as,  Should  he 
arrive^  I  will  accompany  him. 

3.  Verbs  may  be  variously  classified. 

(1.)  Into  Regular  and  Irregular.  The  former  make  their  past 
tense  and  participle  with  the  ending  of  ed  ;  the  latter,  do  not ;  as, 
"I  ascend^^Z;"  "I  saw." 

(2.)  Into  Transitive  and  Intransitive.  The  former  are  not 
complete  in  their  meaning  without  the  addition  of  a  noun,  as 
the  object  upon  which  the  action  expressed  by  the  verb  rests 
or  falls  ;  as,  "  He  has  performed  his  task."  Here  tlie  sense 
of  the  verb  performed  would  be  imperfect  without  tash  as  an 
object. 

But  ''  he  walked^''  is  intransitive,  as  the  action  is  limited  to  the 
subject  lie^  and  does  not  terminate  on  an  object. 

(3.)  Transitive  verbs  are  either  in  the  Active  or  Passive  form. 
"He  has  performed  his  task,"  is  active ;  "His  task  has  been  per- 
formed," is  passive ;  the  object  of  the  verb  in  the  active  form  of  the 
sentence,  being  made  the  subject  of  the  verb  in  the  passive  form. 
In  the  active  form,  the  subject  is  represented  as  acting;  in  the 
passive,  as  acted  upon. 

Hence,  intransitive  verbs  cannot  regularly  be  used  in  the  pas- 
sive form. 

Some  intransitive  verbs  express  simply  the  idea  of  existence  or 
being ;  as,  I  (xm,  he  is^  we  shall  be.     Thomas  is  active. 

Any  verb  which  makes  sense  with  a  pronoun  after  it  in  the  ob- 
♦ective  form,  may  be  known  as  being  a  transitive  verb ;  as,  He 
rewards  him. 

(4.)  Some  verbs  are  used  both  in  a  transitive  and  in  an  intran- 
sitive sense ;  as,  "  We  returned  from  the  city"  (intransitive) ; 
""We  returned  the  favor"  (transitive). 

(5.)  Intransitive  verbs  admit  after  them,  as  an  object,  a  noun 
possessing  a  meaning  like  that  of  the  verb ;  as,  "He  ran  a  race;" 
and  such  an  objective  case  may  be  converted  into  a  subjective 


46  EXERCISES    ON   VERBS. 

case  with  the  passive  form  of  the  verb ;  as,  "  A  race  was  run  by 
him." 

These  verbs  will  be  referred  to  again  in  a  future  lesson. 

(6.)  The  infinitive  mood  is  sometimes  the  subject  or  the  object  of 
a  verb  ;  as,  *'  To  write  well  is  a  fine  accomplishment."  ^'  He  has 
learned  to  write  well." 

(7.)  Some  intransitive  verbs  are  construed  passively;  as,  ''He 
wa8  laughed  at f^  ''The  business  is  to  le  looTced  afterf  "The 
decision  was  appealed  from;''''  "He  is  not  to  he  scoffed  at  f 
"These  are  lessons  to  he  practised  on  f  "Duty  was  lost  sight 
of;''''  "  The  money  was  made  use  of  by  the  servant." 

Exercises. 

1.  Supply  the  following  verbs  with  an  appropriate  Sub- 
ject: 

was  fastened  with  tacks.     entered  the  harbor.     

played  upon  the  piano.     abounded  in  the  city.     was 

dear.     fell  on  the  field  of  battle.     smiled.     has 

done  this  ?    Is at  home  ?     Will come  to-day  ?     is 

an  important  study. 

2.  Supply  the  following  wdth  an  appropriate  Object : 

1  saw  .  The  good  man  loves  his  .  Columbus  dis- 
covered   .     Galileo  invented .     Learn  well . 

3.  Express  the  following  facts  by  changing  the  verbs  to 
the  passive  form : 

The  farmer  ploughed  his  field.  John  deprived  James  of  his 
rights.  The  class  learned  the  last  lesson  well.  Wealth  sometimes 
produces  misery.  A  guilty  conscience  needs  no  accuser.  Evil 
communications  corrupt  good  manners.  Read  the  book.  Do  not 
nsult  him.  Conduct  your  affairs  prudently.  They  fought  a 
duel. 

4.  Convert  the  following  statements  into  the  active 
form  : 

She  was  pitied  by  me.  The  country  is  overrun  with  locusts. 
Christianity  has  ever  been  opposed  by  the  wicked.     Bonaparte 


ERRONEOUS    USE    OF   AUXILIARY   VERBS.  47 

was  defeated  by  the  Duke  of  Wellington.    The  teacher  was  greatly 
respected  by  his  scholars.     The  Bible  should  be  read  by  all. 

5.  Supply  the  blanks  with  a  subject  phrase,  containiug 
a  verb  in  the  infinitive  mood : 

is  the  highest  duty  of  man.     is  the  part  of  every 

good  citizen.     should  be  the  endeavor  of  the  young. 

is  the  design  of  this  exercise.     is  base.     is  honorable. 

6.  Supply  the  blanks  with  an  object  phrase,  containing 
a  verb  in  the  infinitive  mood : 

I  hate .     He  regretted .     He  ambitiously  sought 

It  is  dishonorable . 


LESSON  XV. 

AUXILIARY   VERBS. ^ERRONEOUS    USE    OF   THEM. 

Of  these,  some  have  no  other  oftice  than  to  assist 
in  forming  certain  tenses  of  Principal  Verbs ;  these  are, 
may,  can,  shall^  could^  mighty  would^  should^  ough%  must. 
Others  are  sometimes,  also.  Principal  Verbs  themselves ; 
as,  will^  have^  had^  do^  did^  let^  he. 

1.  Am  and  was  are  sometimes  used  improperly.  "From  which 
we  are  severed,"  should  be  "  have  severed."  "  Was  also  ceased," 
should  be  "  Had  also  ceased." 

2.  Am  and  was  may  be  used  as  auxiliaries  only  when  the  prin- 
cipal verb  implies  mx)tion^  or  change  of  condition;  as,  '^I  was 
gone  ;"  "  I  was  fallen  ;"  "  I  am  come  ;"  "  He  is  fled." 

"You  was^'^  instead  of  "You  were^''  is  inadmissible,  though 
Bome  grammarians  justify  the  phrase. 

8.  Sometimes  do  and  did  stand  in  the  place  of  the  principal 
verbs  to  which  they  refer ;  as,  "  He  loves  not  play  as  thou  dost ;" 
that  is,  as  "thou  lovest."  Sometimes  do  and  did  are  used  for 
emphasis  ;  as,  "I  do  love  thee  ;"  "Nay,  but  thou  didst  call  mo." 

DovDt^  when  used  for  does  not^  is  a  vulgarism.  It  is  properly  ft 
contraction  of  do  not^  and  not  of  does  not. 


i8  ERRONEOUS    USE    OF    AUXILIARY    VERBS. 

W&f^e  and  did  are  improperly  used  for  would  be  and  should  in  the 
following  sentence :  *'  It  were  an  intolerable  spectacle,  did  they 
oehold  one  of  their  fellows  in  the  agonies  of  death." 

Doth  and  hath^  in  serious  compositions,  are  properly  used  in- 
stead of  does  and  has.  They  liave  the  merit,  also,  of  being  more 
smooth  and  soft  in  pronunciation. 

I^d  rather^  in  familiar  discourse,  stands,  properly,  not  for  I  had 
rather^  but  for  /  would  rather. 

4.  Oare  should  be  taken,  when  an  ellipsis  is  made,  that  the  con- 
struction be  the  same  as  if  the  omitted  words  were  introduced ; 
for  example,  "He  always  has  heen^  and  now  is,  a  sober  man.''  It 
would  not  answer  to  say,  "He  always  has^  and  now  is,  a  sober 
man ;"  nor  to  say,  "  I  am,  and  always  have  talcen^  great  pains." 
Here  am  does  not  suit  taken  great  pains.  The  meaning  to  be 
conveyed  was,  "  I  am  taking,  and  always,"  &c.  Each  clause  must 
be  complete  in  itself  where  auxiliaries  are  used. 

5.  Shall  and  Will. — These  are  apt  to  be  used,  the  one  for  the 
other,  erroneously;  as  in  the  case  of  the  drowning  foreigner,  who, 
sinking  in  the  Thames,  exclaimed,  "  I  will  be  drowned,  and  no 
one  shall  help  me ;"  or  again,  as  in  the  case  of  a  common  expres- 
sion of  Irish  servants,  "  Shall  you  take  tea,  and  will  I  bring  it  to 
you?" 

Even  so  good  a  writer  as  Dr.  Blair  sometimes  confounds  these 
words;  as,  "Without  having  attended  to  this,  we  will  be  at  a 
loss,"  &c.  "  There  are  no  two  words  we  would  naturally  take," 
&c.  Shall  and  should  are  the  proper  words.  Again,  "Think 
what  reflection  shall  most  probably  arise."  Will  is  here  the  proper 
word. 

"  In  the  first  person,  simply  shall  foretells  ; 
In  will  a  threat,  or  else  a  promise  dwells : 
Shall^  in  the  second  and  third,  does  threat  ; 
Will  simply,  then,  foretells  the  future  feat." 

Brightland. 

Shall.,  from  the  Saxon,  originally  means  to  owe.,  to  be  under  ob- 
ligation to  a  superior.  "  Thou  shalt  not  kill,"  means,  "  Thou  art 
under  obligation  not  to  kill.  "  You  shall  go,"  implies  an  obliga- 
tion resulting  from  the  command  of  another.  As  the  being  obliged 
or  compelled  to  do  a  thing  implies  that  the  act  is  future,  this 
word  sometimes  expresses  only  the  idea  of  futurity  as  to  the  act 


ERRONEOUS    USE   OF  AUXILIARY    VERBS.  49 

named ;  as,  "  I  shall  go  to-morrow,"  On  the  other  hand,  will  de- 
notes determination^  purpose^  and  as  this  generally  has  reference 
to  a  future  act,  the  word  sometimes  carries  no  other  meaning  than 
that  of  futurity. 

6.  Harrison  thus  illustrates  the  principle  :  "  I  shall  go  to  town 
to-morrow."  Here  simply  the  intention  of  doing  a  certain  thing 
is  expressed,  without  any  anticipation  of,  or  reference  to,  hin- 
drance. But  when  I  say,  "  I  will  go  to  town  to-morrow,"  I  declare 
my  resolution  to  do  so,  in  spite  of  all  opposition,  ''  I  must  and 
will  go  to  town  to-morrow."  In  both  these  cases,  the  person  who 
speaks  is  also  the  person  who  is  about  to  act.  He,  therefore,  at 
pleasure,  expresses  an  act  of  simple  volition,  or  of  fixed  purpose, 
according  to  circumstances.  Both  are  at  his  own  option ;  he  has 
the  control  of  both  in  his  own  mind.  But,  when  we  pass  to  tlie 
second  person^  thou  shalt^  or  thou  wilt^  it  is  to  be  borne  in  mind 
that  the  first  person  is  still  the  speaker,  though  the  second  person 
is  the  actor.  If,  therefore,  the  acting  of  the  second  person  is  de- 
pendent upon  the  will  of  the  firsts  the  first  person  says  thoushalt^ 
and  not  thou  wilt^  for  the  willing  rests  with  the  first  person ;  but 
if  the  first  person  leaves  the  second  to  act  as  he  may  thinJc  proper^ 
he  says  thou  wilt^  and  thus  claims  no  authority  over  that  willing. 
Again,  in  the  third  person,  he  shall^  or  he  will^  we  see  the  same 
principle.  When  the  first  person  says  he  shall^  he  deprives  the 
third  of  the  exercise  of  his  own  will ;  but  when  he  says  he  will^ 
he  leaves  him  in  the  exercise  of  that  wih,  and  simply  expresses 
his  belief  that  it  is  the  intention  or  will  of  the  third  person  to  do 
this  or  that. 

7.  When,  however,  we  pass  to  the  interrogutive  forms  of  sh^ll 
and  will^  the  case  is  reversed.  In  the  second  person  of  the  verb, 
wo  simply  inquire  what  the  will  of  that  person  is,  implying  that 
it  is  not  subject  to  the  control  of  the  person  asking.  We,  there- 
fore, say,  wilt  thou  ?  or,  will  you  ?  In  the  third  person  of  the 
verb,  again,  the  act  of  willing  remains  with  that  person,  and  we 
6imi)ly  ask,  will  he?  if  plural,  will  they?  Thus,  Shall  I  go  to 
London  ?  Wilt  thou  go  ?  Will  he  go  ?  Shall  we  go  ?  Will  you 
go  ?      Will  they  go  ? 

8.  Will^  as  a  principal  verb,  must  not  be  confounded  with  will 
HS  an  auxiliary. 

9-    Would  and  Should. —  Would  refers  either  to  present  or  past 

3 


50  PKOPER    USE   OF   THE   SUBJUNCTIVE   MOOD. 

time,  and  expresses  volition ;  and  is  sometimes,  like  should^  used 
as  a  simple  future;  as,  ''He  said  hQ  would  go  to-morrow;"  or, 
that  "  he  should  go  to-morrow." 

Should  generally  expresses  obligation  or  duty,  and  that  in  the 
past  or  present.  In  the  former  case  should  is  connected  with  a 
past  tense  of  the  verb  ;  as,  John  should  have  gone  yesterday.  "  1 
should  do  it,"  means,  "  I  feel  it  my  duty  to  do  it."  "  I  should 
have  done  it,"  =  "  I  ought  to  have  done  it." 

Should  sometimes  denotes  a  supposed  future  event,  in  all  the 
porsons.  "  If  he  should  attend  school,  he  would  find  it  a  great 
advantage."  "  If  he  would  attend,"  &c.,  refers  to  volition,  deter- 
mination, as  well  as  to  contingency ;  and  implies  that  there  is  an 
aversion  to  do  it. 

•  'JSJiould^  after  the  conjunction  that^  is  used  indefinitely ;  as,  "  He 
said  that  he  should  go." 

Should  and  would  are  employed  to  soften  the  form  of  expres- 
sion ;  as,  "  It  would  seem  to  be  wrong,"  instead  of  "  it  seems  to  be 
wrong."  "I  should  think  him  in  error,"  for  "I  thinJc  him  in 
error." 

10.  Wiliov  shall  follows  a  present  tense;  would  or  should  fol- 
lows a  past  tense;  as,  "I  say  that  I  will  come;"  "I  said  that  I 
would  come."  "I  thinJc  that  I  shall  attend;"  "I  thought  that  I 
should  attend." 

Will  '  the  present  tense,  and  would  in  the  past,  are  used  to 
denote  repeated  or  customary  action ;  as,  "  He  will  smoke  all  day." 
"  He  would  smoke  all  day." 

Mad  is  sometimes  used  for  would^  or  would  have.  "  I  had  rather 
not,"  =  "  I  would^^^  &c.  *'My  fate  had  been  his,"  =  '•''would  have 
been  his." 

May  refers  to  a  present  or /utter  e  privilege,  might  to  a  past  one, 
"  He  is  attentive  to  his  studies  that  he  may  learn  ;"  "he  was  at- 
tentive, &c.,  that  he  might  learn." 

Ought  is  a  defective  verb,  and  does  not  admit  before  it  an 
auxiliary  verb  ;  such  as  ''''I had  ought^^''  for  ''^lought^^^  and  "  DonU 
ought^^^  for  "  ought  noty 

Exercises. 

Make  the  necessary  corrections  in  the  auxiliary  vex'bs. 

I  am  resolved  tliat  I  shall  learn  my  le^^sons.    Yon  promised  that 


INTRANSITIVE   VERBS.  51 

you  should  visit  me.  I  did  hope  that  I  would  gain  it.  If  I  do 
wrong,  I  will  be  punished.  If  I  should  declare  them,  they  should 
be  more  than  I  can  express.  This  man  was  taken  of  the  Jews, 
and  should  have  been  killed  of  them.  Will  I  go  to  New  York,  or 
not?  The  account  you  was  pleased  to  send.  I  am  just  now  as 
well  as  when  you  was  here.  The  clock  don't  tick.  I  was  re- 
solved that  I  should  do  my  duty.  I  hope  that  I  will  see  him. 
How  often  will  I  see  you  ?  I  will  receive  a  letter  when  the  mail 
will  arrive.  All  shall  receive  their  money  when  the  work  will 
have  been  done.  I  would  not  be  surprised  to  see  him  there.  I 
would  be  pleased  to  see  him.  Will  we  hear  a  good  lecture  ?  Per- 
haps I  will  receive  some  money.  Perhaps  you  shall  receive  it. 
In  spite  of  difficulties,  I  shall  go.  This  dedication  may  serve  for 
almost  any  book  that  has,  is,  or  shall  be  published.  You  h^^dn't 
ought  to  speak  so  rudely.  You  don't  ought  to  swear.  You  had 
ought  to  study  hard.  They  had  not  ought  to  neglect  public  wor- 
ship. I  had  as  lief  stay.  He  had  better  study.  It  had  like  to 
have  been  worse.     You  hadn't  ought  to  do  this. 

1         _____ 


LESSON  XVI. 

INTRANSITIVE   VERBS. — ERRONEOUS   USE    OF    THEM. 

1.  These  verbs  express  simply  being  or  condition ;  or 
their  action  is  limited  to  the  agent,  and  does  not  pass  ovei 
to  an  object. 

2.  Intransitive  verbs  are  sometimes  used  improperly  as 
transitive ;  thus,  "  Pallas  succeeds  their  enterprise ;"  that 
is,  makes  the  enterprise  to  succeed.  "  It  approaches  men 
to  gods."     "  He  retired  the  army  behind  the  river." 

On  the  other  hand,  transitive  verbs  soinetimes  are  im- 
properly used  for  intransitive ;  as,  "  I  must  premise  loith 
three  circumstances."  "  They  ingratiate  with  him  by 
calumniating  me."  With^  in  the  above,  should  be 
omitted. 


52  ERRONEOUS    USE   OF   INTRANSITIVE    VERBS. 

3.  The  intransitive  verb  to  lie^  simply  expressing  condl 
tion,  is  often  confounded  with  the  transitive  verb,  to  lay. 

The  following  examples,  in  the  present  tense,  are  correct :  "  When 
Jesus  saw  him  ?Z6,"  that  is,  to  lie.  "Though  now  they  Z^e  grovel- 
ling." The  following  are  correct  in  the  past  tense:  ''Then  the 
king  lay  on  the  earth."  "  He,  with  his  crew,  lay  vanquished."  The 
T>articiple  of  the  intransitive  verb  is  properly  used  in  the  following 
example :  "  He  lies  upon  the  straw  now,  he  lay  on  the  straw  last 
night,  he  is  said  to  have  lien^  or  lain^  upon  straw  last  night." 
''  Thou  hast  been  lien  withy 

The  transitive  verb,  to  lay  (which  acts  upon  an  object), 
appears  in  the  following : 

"  Or  lay  the  spoils  of  conquest  at  her  feet."  "  I  Imf  the  book 
down."  "The  book  was  laid  down."  "Oh,  that  my  calamity 
were  laid  in  the  balances!"  It  should  be  noticed  that  lay  is  the 
past  tense  of  the  intransitive  verb  to  lie^  and  the  present  tense  of 
the  transitive  verb  to  lay, 

4.  Intransitive  verbs  are  used  as  transitive  when  they 
bear  a  causative  sense ;  that  is,  when  they  denote  the  caus- 
ing of  the  act  expressed ;  as,  "  They  run  a  daily  coach." 
"  Walk  the  horse."  "  The  horse  was  walked  over  the 
ground,"  that  is,  was  made  to  walk,  &c. 

5.  Intransitive  verbs  should  not  be  used  in  the  passive, 
except  when  rendered  transitive  by  the  addition  of  another 
word.  Thus,  the  verb  laugh  becomes  transitive  by  adding 
at,     "  He  is  laughed  at  by  all."     "  He  laughed  at  her." 

The  transitive  verb  set  is  improperly  used,  sometimes,  for 
the  intransitive,  sit. 

So  the  verbs  fly  and  fl^e^  flown  and  flowed^  are  con 
founded. 

Exercises. 
Correct  the  errors  in  the  following  sentences : 
Be  repented  him  of  his  design.  The  farmer  grows  wheat.   Why 

do  you  lay  so  long  this  morning?    He  laid  down  a  whole  hour. 

Let  that  bo ik  lay.     He  was  laughed  by  the  assembly.     He  retired 


ERRONEOUS    USE    OF   IRREGULAR   VERBS.  53 

himself  early.  The  instructor  learns  his  pupils.  The  ship  .aid  at 
anchor.  He  succeeded  my  undertaking.  Please  to  set  down.  The 
eagle  flees  through  the  air.  The  man  flies  from  his  house.  The 
birds  had  flowed.     The  land  was  overflown  with  water. 


LESSON  XVII. 

IRREGULAR   VERBS ERRONEOUS    USE    OF   THEM. 

1.  These  are  verbs  which  do  not  form  their  past  tense 
and  past  participle  with  the  termination  oi  ed. 

2.  A  very  common  and  glaring  error  in  the  use  of  some 
of  these  verbs  is  thus  exposed  by  Mr.  Harrison :  "  The 
past  tenses  of  these  verbs,  and  the  passive  participles,  are 
so  perpetually  confounded  and  mutilated,  that  they  exhibit 
a  perfect  grammatical  slaughter-house.  Shakspeare,  Addi- 
son, Swift,  Pope,  Milton,  Gibbon,  Byron,  and  a  host  of 
others,  up  to  the  present  day,  violate  a  principle  which  is  ob- 
vious to  the  merest  school-boy,  in  writing  any  other  lan- 
guage than  his  own.  The  man  of  vegetables  says,  '  Pota- 
toes is  rose^  or  riz^  and  turnips  is  fell?  The  language 
serves  his  purpose,  and  more  is  not  expected ;  but  men  of 
high  literary  character  should  take  care  not  to  mislead  by 
corrupt  example.  There  is  not  one  iota  of  diflference  be- 
tween '  I  had  drank^  and  'I  had  hnew^^  'I  had  rode^^  and 
'  I  had  hlew^  '  I  had  gave^  '  a  web  was  v^ove^^  and  '  a  stone 
was  threw?  In  prose  composition  there  can  be  no  excuse. 
It  is,  perhaps,  to  the  poets  that  we  owe  these  solecisms ;  for 
the  perfect  tense  of  the  verb,  in  the  place  of  the  participle, 
frequently  oifers  a  convenient  rhyme,  which  the  participle 
would  not  supply.     As  Pope  : 

'  Doom'd  from  the  hour  his  luckless  life  legun^ 
To  dogs,  and  vultures,  and  to  Peleus*  son.* — Mad, 


54  EXERCISES   ON   IRREGULAR   VERBS. 

"]^ot  satisfied  with  using  the  participle  in  the  place  of 
the  verb,  Pope  also  uses  the  verb  in  the  place  of  the 
participle : 

*  And  now  the  years,  a  numerous  train,  have  ran, 
The  blooming  boy  is  ripen' d  into  man.' — Odyssey, ^^ 

Exercises. 

In  writing  the  following  sentences,  correct  the  irregular 
verb  in  each  : 

He  set  down.  Some  one  has  took  my  chair.  He  sleeped  well. 
She  has  sang  all  the  evening.  He  had  sank  before  we  could  reach 
him.  I  have  often  swam  the  river.  He  didn't  ought  to  have  his 
salary  rose.  The  cherries  had  fell  off.  He  begun  well,  but  did  not 
continue  as  he  had  began.  Having  arose,  he  started  out.  John 
was  chose  to  go.  Peter  come  next  to  me.  After  the  messenger 
had  came,  I  departed.  The  ball  was  throwed  away.^Hehad  mis- 
took the  road.  The  water  is  froze.  I  seen  you  run.  He  give  me 
sixpence.  He  had  just  went  away.  The  axis  of  the  world  was 
broke.  The  camp  was  broke  up.  I  was  conscious  that  I  had 
neither  ate  nor  drank  any  thing.  The  book  was  took  away.  The 
sun  had  rose.  The  lawyer  had  spoke.  The  walls  have  fell.  He 
drunk  a  pint.  The  liquor  was  all  drank  up.  The  cork  was  drawed 
out.  I  done  it  well.  I  had  did  the  thing.  The  race  was  ran.  Who 
has  took  my  cane?  He  sown  barley  to-day.  The  man  then  lain 
down.  The  man  had  fell,  and  then  laid  in  the  dust.  He  knowed 
better.  The  hymn  was  sang.  After  laying  a  while,  he  raised  up. 
The  hat  was  gave  to  her.  A  bee  stinged  her.  The  door  is  shet. 
I  laid  down  to  sleep.  I  wished  to  have  went  home.  The  two 
armies  fit  bravely.  Jane  then  give  her  the  knife.  The  tree  growed 
high.  You  rid  too  long.  John  come  home  yesterday.  I  beseeched 
him  to  leave  me.  The  men  dinged  to  the  tree.  I  done  it.  The 
price  of  corn  raised  yesterday.  The  moon  sat  early  to-night.  Tlie 
cloth  shrinked.  He  sat  his  load  down.  The  lawyer  writ  ex- 
tremely well.  Have  you  writ  your  letter  yet  ?  The  boy  swimmed 
bravely.  He  teached  me  faithfully.  He  seed  me  fall.  She  set  a 
long  time. 


PBOPER    USE    015    THE    SUBJUNCTIVE    MOOD.  55 


LESSON   XVIII. 

VERBS. THE    PROPER    USE    OF   THE    SUBJUNCTIVE   MOOD. 

This  subject  has  been  so  well  presented  by  Rev.  M.  Har- 
I'ison,  in  his  work  on  the  English  Language,  that  the  re- 
marks and  illustrations  will  be  drawn  from  it. 

1.  We  are  told  that  the  subjunctive  mood  is  required  when  a  con- 
tingency is  implied.  Now,  contingency  has  respect  to  that  which  is 
past,  that  which  is  j^resent,  or  that  which  is  to  come.  But  with  respect 
to  that  which  mpast,  and  that  which  \sp7'esent,  there  can  be  no  contin- 
gency (uncertainty)  of  fad.  In  both  cases,  a  thing  either  has  been  or 
has  not  been;  either  is  or  is  not.  The  contingency  exists  nowhere  but  in 
the  mind  of  the  speaker.  But  when  we  come  to  the  consideration  of  a 
thing  that,  as  yet,  exists  not  at  all,  but  which  is  future,  we  then  have  a 
contingency  of  fact  added  to  the  uncertainty  of  the  speaker's  mind. 
In  the  very  nature  of  things,  then,  tve  speak  declaratively  and  indicatively 
of  that  which  is  past  or  present,  but  hypothetically  of  that  which  is  contingent 
(may  or  may  not  happen)  as  a  fact.  For  example  :  "Is  Thomas  able 
to  repeat  his  grammar  this  morning?"  "  No,  he  is  not ;  because  he 
wa^  ill  last  night."  *'  If  he  was  ill,  that  is  enough."  "  Has  Thomas 
come  to  repeat  his  grammar  ?"  "  No,  he  has  not ;  because  his  head 
aches.'"  "  7)^  his  head  aches,  that  is  enough."  In  neither  of  these  cases 
is  there  any  contingency  of  fact,  and  therefore  we  say,  If  he  was  ill  at 
that  time,  and  If  his  head  aches  at  this  time.  But,  if  we  pass  on  to  a 
future  time,  we  then  put  the  case  hypothetically  ;  as,  "  Will  Thomas  come  up 
to  repeat  his  grammar  to-morrow  ?"  "Yes,  if  his  head  do  not  ache  ;" 
if  he  be  better  ;  that  is,  should  it  so  happen  ;  should  he  be  better. 
"  Did  you  take  a  walk  yesterday?"  "No,  I  did  not ;  because  it  was 
wet."  "If  it  was  wet  (not  if  it  were),  you  were  better  at  home." 
"Will  you  walk  now  .?"  "  Yes,  if  it  does  not  rain."  *'  If  it  rains  nowj 
will  you  take  a  walk  an  hour  hence?"  "  Yes,  if  in  the  mean  time  it 
clear  up  ;"  that  is,  shoidd  clear  up,  not  clears,  which  has  reference  only 
to  a. present,  and  now  existing  state.  "Do  you  think  that  the  roads  will 
be  dirty  this  morning  ?"  "  Yes,  if  there  has  been  much  rain  in  the 
night."  "Will  you  ride  your  horse  to  town  next  week  ?"  "  Yes,  if 
he  have  (not  has)  recovered  of  his  lameness  before  that  time."  "  Though 
he  studied  (past)  the  work  for  twelve  months,  yet  he  did  not  make 


56  PEOPEE   irSE   OF   THE    SUBJUI^CTIVE   MOOD. 

himself  master  of  it."  **  Though  he  studies  (present)  twelve  hours  a 
day.  yet  he  makes  little  progress."  *'  Though  he  study  (future)  twelve 
hours,  he  will  not  be  sufficiently  prepared." 

*'  Were  I  Alexander,  I  would  do  it."  "  And  were  I  Parmenio,  I  would 
do  it."  That  is,  were  the  state  of  things  so  altered,  that  I,  as  Alexan- 
der, should  become  Parmenio,  then  I  would  do  it.  But  if,  in  these 
cases,  we  substitute  was  in  place  of  were,  the  meaning  of  both  sentences 
;vould  be  changed. 

2.  The  Subjunctive  Mood,  then,  in  English,  is  not  used  with  pro- 
priety, when  we  speak  of  that  which  is  past,  or  of  that  which  is  pres- 
ent, but  when  the  fact  itself  has  not  yet  taken  place,  and  is  necessarily 
future.  In  many  cases,  shall  and  should  may  be  prefixed  to  that  which 
has  a  subjunctive  form,  when  it  relates  to  that  which  is  future,  but 
never  when  it  relates  to  that  which  is  past  or  present ;  as,  "  If  I  6fi  well 
next  week,  I  shall  call  upon  him  ;"  that  is,  If  I  shall  he  well,  I,  &c. 
"If  they  he  unprepared,  they  will  fail  in  the  attempt  ;"  that  is.  If 
they  shall  be  unprepared,  &c.  "Our  eyes  wait  upon  the  Lord  our 
God,  until  he  have  mercy  upon  us  ;"  that  is,  until,  at  some  future  pe- 
riod, he  shall  have  mercy  upon  us.  "  No  fear  lest  dinner  cool  f  that  is, 
Lest  dinner  should  cool.  "  If  thy  brother  trespass  against  thee,"  &c.  ; 
that  is,  If  thy  brother  shall  or  should  trespass,  &c.  "Lest  sin  surprise 
thee  ^"  tliat  is,  Lest  sin  should  surprise  thee." 

3.  It  must  have  been  observed,  that  verbs  in  the  subjunctive  mood 
are  generally  preceded  by  some  word  denoting  a  condition,  an  uncer- 
tainty, or  a  supposition  ;  as,  although,  except,  if,  unless,  &c.  Sometimes 
the  word  expressing  condition,  &c.,  is  omitted  ;  as,  "  Had  he  written, 
he  would,"  &c ;  that  is,  If  he  had  written,  he  would,  &c.  ^'Were  I 
provided  with  money,  you  should  share  it ;"  that  is,  If  I  were,  &c. 
Thus  the  past  tense  of  the  subjunctive  often  indicates  present  time, 
and  is  then  called  the  Hypothetical  Present. 

4.  We  also  learn  from  the  above,  that  the  Future  Subjunctiv^e  often 
omits  the  auxiliary  shall,  or  will ;  as,  "  If  he  he  industrious,  he  will  suc- 
ceed ;"  that  is,  If  he  shall  he  industrious.  &c.  "  Though  he  slay  me 
(that  is,  though  he  shall  slay  me),  yet  will  I  trust  in  him."  In  the  com- 
mon English  version  of  the  Scriptures,  this  elliptical  form  of  the  sub- 
junctive future  is  the  one  generally  adopted.  Dr.  Webster  remarks, 
that  this  subjunctive  form  of  the  verb,  if  he  he,  if  he  have,  if  he  say,  ij 
thou  write^  though  he  fall,  &c.,  which  was  generally  used  by  writers  oi 
the  sixteenth  century,  was  in  a  great  measure  discarded  before  the 
time  of  Addison.  Locke,  Watts,  Pope,  and  otht*i  authors  of  the  first 
distinction,  who  adorned  the  close  of  the  seventeenth  and  beginnin<,f 
of  the  eighteenth  century,  generally  used  the  indicative  mode  to  ex- 


EXERCISES    ON    THE   SUBJUNCTIVE   MOOD.  57 

press  condition,  uncertainty,  and  hypothesis  in  the  present  and  past 
tenses.  Thus  Locke  writes:  "If  principles  are  innate."  "If  one 
considers  well  these  men's  way  of  speaking,"  &c.  So  Addison  :  "  If 
exercise  clears  the  vessels,"  &c. 

5.  The  subjunctive  mood  is  used  in  expressing  a  icish.  "  Oh,  that  1  were 
prepared  to  die."     "  Oh,  that  you  were  wise." 

This  past  tense  of  the  subjunctive  is  used  also  to  express  a  supposi- 
tion, or  a  wish,  when  you  would  deny  the  thing  supposed  or  wished. 
Thus  Christ  says,  "  If  my  kingdom  wei-e  of  this  world,  then  would  my 
servants  fight."  Thus  saying  that  his  kingdom  was  not  of  this  world. 
**  Oh,  that  he  were  here,"  implying  that  he  is  not  here.  ^^  If  I  had  the 
book  I  would  lend  it,"  implying  that  I  have  it  not. 

"While  the  subjunctive  present  is  now  generally  used  as  an  elliptical 
form  of  the  future  {shall  or  should  being  omitted),  yet  it  is  sometimes 
"  used  when  the  time  is  manifestly  joreseni,  and  in  such  a  way  that  nei- 
ther shall  nor  should,  nor  any  similar  term,  can  be  supplied  without 
changing  the  sense,  and  where  the  present  usage  would  require  the 
present  indicative,  thus  'Though  the  Lord  be  high,'  &c.,  '  Whether  he 
be  a  sinner  or  not,  I  know  not.'  " — {Bullions.) 

Exercises. 
Write  the  following  sentences,  correcting  such  as  may 
require  correction,  according  to  the  above  observations. 

Though  he  slays  me,  yet  will  I  trust  in  him.  With  whom,  if  he 
comes  shortly,  I  will  see  you.  If  thou  returnest  in  peace^  the  Lord 
hath  not  spoken  by  me.  If  ever  he  has  child,  abortive  be  it.  If  thou 
seekest  hira,  he  will  be  found  of  thee.  Beware  lest  sin  surprise  thee. 
What  man,  if  he  loses  one  sheep,  does  not,  &c.  If  thou  canst  do  any 
thing,  have  compassion  on  us.  If  a  man  was  to  compare  the  effect 
of  a  single  stroke,  he  would  be  overwhelmed.  "If  the  leg  does 
not  come  off,  take  the  turkey  to  yourself."  "  Madame,"  replied 
the  man  in  black,  ''I  don't  care  a  farthing  whether  the  leg  or  the 
wing  comes  off."  If  nobody  within  either  moves  or  speaks,  it  If 
likely  that  they  may  carry  the  place  by  storm ;  but  if  a  panic 
should  seize  them,  it  will  be  proper  to  defer  the  enterprise.  If 
the  hair  has  lost  its  powder,  a  lady  has  a  puff;  if  a  coat  is  spotted, 
a  lady  has  a  brush.  If  similitude  of  manners  is  a  motive  to  kind- 
ness, the  idler  may  flatter  himself  with  universal  patronage.  Had 
he  come,  we  could  have  finished  it.  If  he  practises  economy,  he 
will  support  himself.     If  thou  goest,  she  may  accompany  tliee. 

3* 


58  CERTAIN   TENSES    AND   MOODS. 

Was  it  necessary,  I  will  explain.  If  I  be  rightly  informed.  If 
there  exists  a  country  which  contains  the  means  of  protection.  If 
the  effects  of  climate  are  casual.  If  thou  be  the  Son  of  God,  come 
down  from  the  cross.  Now  if  Christ  be  preached  that  he  rose 
from  the  dead,  &c.  But  if  there  be  no  resurrection  of  the  dead, 
then,  &o.  And  if  Christ  be  not  risen,  then,  &c.  He  must  rei^ii 
till  he  hath  put  all  enemies  under  his  feet.  If  thou  bring  thy  gilt 
to  the  altar,  and  there  rememberest,  &c.  Nay,  Father  Abraham, 
but  if  one  went  unto  them  from  the  dead,  they  will  repent.  If 
any  member  absents  himself,  he  shall  forfeit  a  penny.  Saxony 
was  left  defenceless,  and  if  it  was  conquered,  might  be  plundered, 
&c.  Oh,  that  I  was  at  my  journey's  end.  If  I  should  now  have 
money  enougli,  your  request  will  be  granted.  Was  I  in  your 
place,  I  would  not  hesitate.     I  had  rather  go  than  stay. 


LESSON  XIX. 

VERBS. — PROPER   AND   IMPROPER   USE    OF    CERTAIN   TENSES 
AND    MOODS. 

1.  Sometimes  the  past  tense  is  improperly  used  for  the  present : 
as,  ''Two  young  men  have  made  a  discovery  that  there  was  a 
God."     It  should  be,  that  there  is  a  God. 

2.  The  present  tense  properly  expresses  a  general  principle^  and 
that  which  is  universally  and  always  true;  as.  Honesty  is  the 
best  policy.  Man  is  immortal.  If  man  is  immortal,  then  he 
ought,  &c. 

3.  The  perfect  is  sometimes  improperly  used  instead  of  the  past : 
as,  "The  Lord  hath  given^  and  the  Lord  hath  taken  away."  It 
should  be  the  Lord  gave. 

4.  The  present  tense  is  properly  and  advantageously  employed 
in  relating  past  events  as  though  they  were  just  now  occurring. 
Vivacity  and  interest  are  thus  imparted  to  a  narrative.  Thus. 
Moses  leads  his  people  to  the  Red  Sea,  and  opens  a  way  for  them 
through  the  waters. 

5.  The  present  tense  may  he  used  of  a  person  not  living^  hut 
iohose  injiuence  or  works  still  exist.     Thus  we  may  say  of  Clay, 


CERTAIN   TENSES    AND   MOOBS.  59 

"  He  i^  one  of  the  first  orators  that  ever  adorned  the  xinierican 
Senate." 

6.  Sometimes  the  present  is  used  for  the  future^  in  familiar  wri- 
ting or  discourse,  as,  "He  goes  to-morrow."  So  the  perfect  is 
sometimes  used  for  the  future^  as,  "  He  will  go  after  he  has  recited 
his  lesson,"  instead,  after  he  shall  hate  recited^  &c. 

7.  The  past  should  not  be  used  for  the  pluperfect,  as,  He  arrived 
before  I  came.     It  should  be,  "  He  had  arrived^ 

8.  The  perfect  is  sometimes  incorrectly  used  instead  of  the  pres- 
ent: as,  "The  children  now  living  have  been  greatly  indebted  to 
their  excellent  parents" — more  correctly,  "  are  indebted." 

9.  In  respect  to  a  peculiar  use  of  the  past  tense.  Dr.  Webster 
states  the  following  case :  "  A  servant  calls  on  me  for  a  book.  If 
I  am  uncertain  whether  I  have  it  or  not,  I  answer,  '  If  the  book 
be  in  my  library,  or  if  I  have  the  book,  your  master  is  welcome  to 
it ;'  but  if  I  am  certain  that  I  have  not  the  book,  I  say,  '  If  the  book 
we7'e  in  my  library,  or  if  I  had  the  book,  it  should  be  at  your  mas- 
ter's service.'  Here  it  is  obvious  that  when  we  use  the  present 
tense,  it  implies  uncertainty  of  the  fact,  and  when  we  use  the  pret- 
erit (the  past)  it  imphes  a  negation  of  its  existence.  Thus  also, 
a  person  at  night  would  say  to  his  friend,  '  If  it  rain  you  shall  not 
go,'  being  uncertain  at  the  time  whether  it  did  or  did  not  rain ; 
but  if,  on  looking  out,  he  perceived  it  did  not  rain,  he  would  then 
say, '  If  it  rained  you  should  not  g  >,'  intimating  that  it  did  not  rain." 

10.  Care  must  be  taken  that  in  connected  tenses  there  shall  be  a 
proper  correspondence;  as,  "Ye  will  not  come  to  me  that  ye 
might  have  life."  In  such  instances,  where  the  principal  verb  is 
in  the  future  or  the  present,  the  dependent  verb  cannot  be  in  the 
past  tense.  "  That  ye  may  have  life"  is  the  proper  tense.  If  the 
first  verb  is  in  the  past,  then  the  other  verb  should  also  be  in  the 
past ;  as,  "  Ye  would  not  come  to  me  ;^'  or,  "  Ye  did  not  come  to 
rae,  that  ye  might  have  life."  When  the  first  verb,  however,  is  in 
the  perfect  tense,  the  second  may  be  either  in  the  present  or  the 
past;  as,  "  Ye  have  not  come  to  me  that  ye  might  (or  may)  have 
life." 

11 .  Sometimes  an  essential  part  of  a  complex  tense  is  improperly 
omitted^  a  part  of  the  verb  occurring  in  a  previous  portion  of  the 
sentence,  which,  however,  cannot  supply  the  defect ;  as,  "  I  shall 
do  all  I  can  to  persuade  others  to  tahe  the  same  measures  for  their 


60  CERTAIN    TENSES    AND    MOODS 

cure  which  I  Tiatey  As  it  will  not  answer  to  say,  '*  I  have  take^"- 
so  it  becomes  necessary  to  add  to  the  above  sentence  the  partici- 
ple taken.  Hence,  in  auxiliary  tenses,  the  structure  of  each  clause 
must  be  completed;  as,  "This  case  never  haR  leen^  or  loill  be, 
met."     It  would  be  faulty  to  say,  "  never  has  or  will  le^  met." 

12.  Verbs  are  sometimes  coupled  as  having  a  common  regimen, 
when,  in  fact,  they  do  not  admit  of  it ;  as,  "  It  requires  few  talents 
to  which  most  men  are  not  horn^  or,  at  least,  may  not  acquire.''^ 
The  second  clause  does  not  properly  follow  to  which:  "to  which 
most  men  may  not  acquire."  To  make  good  sense,  it  is  necessary  to 
change  the  clause  thus :  "  or  which^  at  least,  they  may  not  acquire." 

13.  "  IFere"  is  sometimes  used  instead  of  "  would  Z>^,"  and  '"''had''^ 
for  '^ would  have]''^  as,  "It  were  (that  is,  zcould  he)^  a  shame  to  do 
it."  "If  thou  hadst  been  here,  my  brother  had  not  {would  not 
have)  died." 

14.  The  past  teiise  of  the  Infinitive  is  very  often  incorrectly  used 
for  the  present,  after  verbs  in  the  pa'fet  tense;  thus,  "  He  intended 
to  have  gone  home  to-day,"  which  should  be  written  "  He  intended 
to  go  home  to-day."  Thus  it  Avill  be  seen  that  the  present  tense 
of  the  infinitive  must  be  used  to  "  express  what  is  contemporary 
with,  or  subsequent  to,  the  time  of  the  principal  verb  in  the  sen- 
tence;" but  the  perfect  tense  of  the  infinitive  properly  expresses 
what  happens  before  the  time  of  the  principal  verb;  as,  "He 
seemed  to  have  been  drinking." 

15.  The  pluperfect  auxiliary  is  sometimes  used  improperly  for 
that  of  the  imperfect  subjective  ;  as,  "  I  had  rather  go  than  stay," 
for  "  I  would  rather  go  than  stay  ;"  "  We  had  better  go^''  for  "  We 
would  better  go ;"  or,  "  It  would  be  better  to  go." 

Exercises, 

1.  Correct  the  verbs  according  to  the  above  observa- 
tions. 

The  Court  of  Chancery  frequently  mitigates,  and  breaks  the 
teeth  of  the  common  law.  They  presently  grow  into  good  hu' 
mor  and  good  language  towards  the  crown.  Whose  people  do  as 
they  are  a  mind  to.  He  said  that  a  tyrant  was  always  a  coward. 
He  said  that  Callioun  was  highly  argumentative.  Was  it  neces 
sary,  1  would  explain.     If  he  practises  economy,  he  will  do  well. 


PROPER    USE    OF    NUMBER   AND    PERSON.  61 

If  thou  goest,  she  may  go  also.  We  have  and  will  be  your  friends. 
The  orator  believed  that  all  men  were  entitled  to  freedom.  I  am 
a  mind  not  to  give  you  the  book.  Did  you  say  that  Everett  was 
the  most  polished  writer  now  in  America  ?  The  preacher  con- 
tended that  the  Bible  was  a  source  of  the  highest  benefits.  He 
said  that  Oowper  was  profitable  reading.  Since  he  has  done  it,  I 
can.  He  was  anxious  to  have  done  it.  I  expected  to  have  met 
you  to-morrow.  This  is  the  only  bargain  that  had,  or  could  be, 
made.  I  prayed  for  her  life,  which  I  would  have  been  wilHng  al- 
most to  have  purchased  with  ray  own.  I  intended  to  have  writ- 
ten yesterday.     We  had  better  stay.     We  had  better  walk. 

2.  Use  the  tense  that  will  give  increased  vivacity  to  the 
following  paragraphs. 

All  was  tumult  and  confusion ;  no  one  knew  how  to  act.  At 
length  Eustace  de  Saint  Pierre  boldly  stepped  forward,  and  offered 
himself  a  voluntary  victim  for  the  safety  of  his  friends  and  com- 
panions.    Five  other  citizens  followed  this  noble  example. 

They  were  led  before  Edward  in  the  prescribed  fashion,  who, 
after  reproaching  them  for  the  obstinacy  of  their  defence,  ordered 
them  to  be  put  to  death.  The  bravest  English  nobles  and  war- 
riors interceded  in  vain  for  their  lives. 

Napoleon's  amusements  all  took  the  same  direction.  His  little 
garden  was  turned  into  a  fortified  camp,  wJiich  no  one  was  per- 
mitted to  invade.  In  winter,  with  tlie  aid  of  his  school-fellows, 
acting  under  his  orders,  he  constructed  new  forts,  with  a  skill  and 
knowledge  which  gained  great  credit  for  the  youthful  engineer. 


LESSON  XX. 

VERBS. — THE   PROPER   USE    OF    NUMBER    AND   PERSON. 

1.  Verbs  must  be  in  the  same  person  and  number  as  their 
subject-nominatives  ;  that  is,  as  the  noun  or  pronoun  pre- 
ceding them  ;  as,  The  boy  runs  ;  The  boys  run.  It  shines; 
They  shine. 


62  THE    PROPER    USE    OF    NUMBER    AND    PERSON. 

2.  Plural  subjects  admit  of  predicates  in  the  singular ;  as, 
Je  are  the  salt  of  the  earth.  Christians  are  the  light  of 
the  world. 

3.  A  subject  in  the  singular  admits  of  a  predicate  in  the 
plural.  "  He  is  head  and  shoulders  above  the  other."  "  A 
!N'e\¥  York  shilling  is  twelve  and  a  half  cents.'' 

4.  Two  or  more  subjects,  connected  by  and^  require  a 
verb  in  the  plural  form ;  as,  Three  men  and  two  horses  are 
crossing  the  river.  The  same  rule  applies,  when  the  sub- 
jects are  sentences,  or  parts  of  sentences;  as,  "That  the 
man  is  a  knave,  and  that  he  was  present,  are  well-known 
facts." 

When  these  subjects  are  of  similar  import,  good  usage  allows  of 
a  singular  verb ;  as,  "  The  worship  and  service  of  heaven  is  repre- 
sented to  us  as  the  worship  and  service  of  gratitude  and  love." 
Here  worship  and  service  present  but  one  complex  subject  of  the 
verb. 

When  the  subjects  connected  by  and  are  not  taken  together,  the 
verb  is  singular.     "  He,  and  not  she,  attends." 

5.  When  two  or  more  nouns,  connected  by  and^  whether 
expressed  or  understood,  are  preceded  by  each^  every^  or 
either^  the  verb  following  such  nouns  must  have  the  singu- 
lar form ;  as,  "  Either  sex,  and  every  age  was  engaged  in 
labor." 

6.  When  two  nouns  of  different  numbers  or  persons  are 
connected  by  than  or  as^  or  by  as  well  as^  as  soon  as^  the 
verb  takes  the  same  number  as  the  former  noun,  and  is  un- 
derstood after  the  latter  ;  as, 

"Such  looTcs  as  ^^is  are  worth  purchasing."  "More  industri- 
ous men  than  John  Wilson  are  seldom  seen."  "  His  goods^  as  well 
as  his  vessel^  were  lost."  "  You,  as  soon  as  he,  have  discovered 
your  mistake." 

7.  When  two  subjects,  in  different  numbers  (one  of 
which  has  the  word  no  or  not  as  a  modifier),  are  connected 
by  and  or  but^  the  verb  takes  the  number  of  the  subject 

\/ 


THE   PROPER    USE    OF    NUMBER    AND    PERSON.  63 

not  thus  modified,  and  is  understood  in  reference  to  the 
other ;  as, 

"^  amount  of  property,  hut  moderate  desires  insure  a  con- 
tented mind."  *' A  genuine  Christian  character,  and  not  ostenta- 
tious professions  of  it,  decides  our  future  happiness." 

8.  When  two  nouns,  connected  by  and^  describe  but  one 
subject,  they  are  followed  by  a  singular  verb ;  as,  "  That 
great  preacher  and  philanthropist  deserves  universal  re- 
spect." 

9.  When  a  verb  is  placed  between  its  subjects,  it  agrees 
in  number  with  the  subject  that  precedes  it,  and  is  to  be 
understood  after  the  other  subjects;  as,  "Sarah  dies^  and 
Rebecca,  and  Gertrude." 

10.  A  collective  noun  takes  a  singular  verb  when  it  ex- 
presses many  as-  a  unit,  a  whole ;  but  a  plural  verb  when 
it  expresses  many,  as  separate  individuals.  The  latter  con- 
struction is  now  more  commonly  employed ;  as,  "  The  Sen- 
ate icere  divided  in  their  views."  "  The  fleet  were  scat- 
tered." 

11.  When  subjects  of  the  same  verb  are  not  of  the  same 
person,  the  verb  takes  the  plural  form,  and  must  be  made 
of  the  first  person,  rather  than  the  second,  and  of  the 
second,  rather  than  the  third ;  as,  "  My  brother  and  I  are 
much  attached."     "  You  and  he  are  very  happy." 

12.  Two  or  more  nominatives,  in  the  singular,  connected 
by  or  or  nor^  require  the  verb  in  the  singular ;  as,  "  Neither 
John  nor  James  is  here." 

When  these  nominatives  are  of  different  persons  or  numbers, 
the  verb  must  be  of  the  same  number  and  person  with  the  nomi- 
native next  to  it;  as,  "I  or  thou  art  wrong."  "Neither  poverty 
nor  riches  are  hurtful  to  him."  In  such  sentences,  however,  it  is 
better  to  vary  the  construction,  and  give  to  each  subject  a  verb  in 
the  proper  person  and  number;  as,  "I  am  wrong,  or  thou  arW^ 
"Neither  poverty  is  hurtful  to  him,  nor  are  riches." 

13.  When  two  or  more  subjects,  connected  by  and^  ex 


64  THE    PROPER    USE    OF   NUMBER    AND  PERSON. 

pressed  or  understood,  are  modified  by  each^  every ^  or  no^ 
they  are  taken  separately,  and  require  a  verb  in  the  singu- 
lar. "1*^0  book,  and  no  paper  is  on  hand."  "Every  pen 
and  pencil  is  here." 

Many  «,  before  a  nominative,  requires  a  singular  verb;  as, 
"Full  many  a  flower  is  born,"  &c. 

14.  Words  adjoined  to  a  nominative  (or  subject),  should 
not  regulate  the  number  of  the  verb  ;  as, 

"The  number  of  scholars  is  increasing,"  not  are^  &c.  "Peter, 
with  John,  is  in  tbe  house."  ''  The  ship,  with  the  crew,  was  lost." 
The  practice  of  good  writers  varies,  in  cases  like  the  last ;  some 
employing  the  singular,  others,  the  plural  verb.  The  former 
method  is  to  be  preferred.  Instead  of  using  the  preposition  in 
such  cases,  the  connective  and  is  better.  Thus,  "  Peter  and  James 
a/re  in  the  house."     ''The  ship  and  the  crew  were  lost." 

15.  The  phrase,  as  appears^  being  equivalent  to  as  it  ap- 
pears^ is  always  thus  written.  The  phrase,  as  follows^ 
must  be  used  after  one  nominative  in  the  singular ;  but,  as 
follow^  after  more  than  one,  or  a  plural  nominative.  Thus, 
"  His  reasoning  is  as  folloics?'*  "  His  arguments  were  as 
follow:' 

As  a  general  thing,  in  prose  composition,  contractions  should 
not  be  used;  as,  "  I  Jia'tmH  done  it."     "  He  shan't  come,"  &c. 

Exercises.  'l^- 

Write  the  following  sentences,  correcting  the  verbs : 

All  the  world  is  spectators.  The  peasantry  goes  barefoot ;  the 
middle  class  makes  use  of  wooden  shoes.  The  audience  was  de- 
lighted. Each  day  and  hour  are  to  be  usefully  emjdoyed.  Every 
eye  and  every  heart  are  joyful.  No  oppressor,  no  tyrant  prosper 
there.  Much  does  human  pride  and  folly  require  correction. 
William  or  Sarah  have  the  paper.  Either  inclination  or  ability  ] 
were  wanting.  A  part  of  the  exports  consist  of  silk.  The  gen- 
eral, with  several  soldiers,  were  taken.  Either  John  or  I  is  con- 
cerned.    The  author,  or  his  works,  is  in  fault.     Many  a  man  have 


EXERCISES    ON    NUMBER    AND   PERSON.  65 

lost  character  by  snch  conduct.  The  society  are  flourishing. 
Either  thou  or  I  art  mistaken.  Neither  Taylor  nor  his  cousins 
was  tliere.  Generation  after  generation  pass  away.  Many  a  ono 
have  been  ruined  by  him.  The  corporation  consist  of  a  Mayor 
and  Council.  The  public  is  solicited  to  be  present.  The  desire  of 
pleasing  one's  friends,  and  thus  gaining  their  love,  make  one  agree- 
able. You  was  there.  Was  you  there?  Is  the  days  becoming 
shorter?  It  is  his  evil  companions  that  has  led  him  away.  Does 
you  live  here?  Circumstances  alters  cases.  Molasses  are  sweet. 
There's  two  or  three  more.  He  need  not  do  it.  Time  and  tide 
waits  for  no  man.  He  and  I  was  there.  His  patience  and  indus- 
try was  remarkable.  There  was  more  apples  than  pears.  The 
number  that  have  been  chosen  are  fifty.  The  rich  oppresses  the. 
poor  A  variety  of  pleasing  objects  charm  the  eye.  A  number 
of  persons  were  there.  They  that  goes  to  school  should  be  studi- 
ous. Sixty  pounds  of  wheat  yields  forty  pounds  of  flour.  Forty 
head  of  cattle  was  sold.  His  remarks  were  as  follows.  The  jury 
was  unanimous.  The  court  fails  to  agree.  To  have  the  esteem  of 
the  wise  and  good,  are  desirable.  That  the  ship,  with  all  her 
crew,  are  lost,  have  been  reported.  Congress  have  adjourned. 
Has  the  minority  reported  ?  Has  the  arithmetic  class  recited  ?  In 
manufacturing  towns  the  lower  class  is  considered  the  producers. 
They,  as  well  as  I,  am  influenced  by  what  he  said.  The  Conven- 
tion were  addressed  by  distinguished  speakers.  A  flock  of  sheep 
were  lost.  Virtue,  and  not  riches,  constitute  happiness.  The 
mind,  and  not  the  body,  sin.  He  or  I  is  wrong.  Jane,  Eliza,  or 
Rachel  have  marked  the  desk.  Either  Jacob  or  I  does  not  reason 
fairly.  Either  the  conductor,  or  his  agents,  has  perjured  them- 
selves. He  or  they  are  to  be  invited.  Whether  you  or  I  are  to 
study  German,  is  not  decided.  You  or  your  father  have  wronged 
me.  Neither  his  style  nor  his  thoughts  is  remarkable.  Her 
beauty,  and  not  her  talents,  command  admiration.  Not  the  act, 
but  the  motives,  is  to  be  considered.  They,  as  well  as  he,  is  in 
fault.  The  audience,  as  well  as  the  performer,  was  anxious  for  a 
repetition  of  the  concert.  Such  opinions  as  that  is  leading  our 
youth  to  ruin.  The  derivation  of  these  words  are  uncertain.  It 
is  not  such  men  as  he  that  is  likely  to  benefit  our  community, 
You  can't  succeed.     You  mayn't  enter.     Don't  attempt  it. 


66  THE   INFINITIVE   MOOJ>» 


LESSON    XXI. 

VEEBS. — ^THE   INFINITIVE   MOOD. 

1.  The  verb,  in  this  mood,  is  used — 

After  Nouns ;  as,  He  has  an  anxiety  to  become  rich. 
After  Adjectives ;  as,  He  is  anxious  to  become  rich. 
After  Pronouns  ;  as,  It  is  not  for  me  to  say  it. 
After  Verbs  ;  as,  He  came  to  see  me. 
After  Adverbs ;  as.  Tell  me  how  to  study. 
After  Prepositions  (very  rarely) ;  as,  He  stood  up  for  to  read. 
After  Conjunctions ;  as.  So  high  as  to  be  inaccessible. 
The  active  form  of  the  infiniti  ^e  is  sometimes  used  in  the  pas' 
sive ;  as,  He  has  a  house  to  sell. 

2.  Verbs  in  the  infinitive  are  used  without  the  prepo- 
sition or  sign  "  i(o,"  after  such  verbs  as  Md^  feel^  dare^  do^ 
have^  hear^  let^  make^  need^  behold^  see^  may^  can^  will^ 
shall^  must ;  as,  Bid  him  go.  He  dares  do  it.  I  feel  the 
pain  increase^  &c. 

3.  The  infinitive  of  the  verb  to  he  has  the  same  case  after 
it,  as  before  it ;  as,  They  believed  him  to  be  me.  Whotn 
did  you  pronounce  him  to  be  ? 

4.  A  noun  or  pronoun,  after  the  infinitive  of  a  passive  or 
intransitive  verb,  is  in  the  nominative,  except  when  the  in- 
finitive has  a  subject  in  the  objective  case ;  as.  It  is  sup- 
posed to  be  she.  Ask  him.  to  repeat  it.  Him,  is  the  sub- 
ject of  ^o  repeat^  and  is  in  the  objective  case. 

5.  l^ouns  in  the  simple  form,  and  Personal  pronouns  in 
the  objective  form,  are  followed  by  intransitive  verbs  in  the 
infinitive  mood,  as  an  abbreviated  form  of  expression. 

"I  believe  Mm  to  be  an  excellent  teacher;"  '^I  believe  t\\Qman 
to  be  an  excellent  teaclier."  The  same  assertions  more  fully  ex 
pressed,  would  be,  "I  beUeve  that  he"  (or,  ''the  man")  ''is  an 
excellent  teacher." 


EXERCISES    ON    THE    INFINITIVE   MOOD.  67 

0.  The  "  to"  should  not  be  separated  from  the  other  part 
of  the  infinitive ;  as,  "  Teach  them  to  supremely  love  God," 
should  be  written  "  to  love  God  supremely,"  or  "  supreme- 
ly to  love  God." 

The  "to"  should  not  be  used  as  a  substitute  for  the  entire  in- 
finitive ;  as,  "  I  did  not  say  it,  and  I  do  not  mean  toy  "  Say  it" 
should  be  added. 

7.  The  infinitive  is  sometimes  omitted ;  as,  "  I  knew  him 
[to  be]  honest ;"  "  He  heard  the  book  [to  be]  read." 

8.  The  perfect  infinitive  is  sometimes  erroneously  used  in 
place  of  the  present  infinitive  ;  as, 

"Last  week  I  expected  to  have  met  you."  It  should  be  ''''to 
meet  you."  At  the  time  referred  to,  the  act  of  meeting  was  not 
a  past  but  a  future  event.  Whereas  the  perfect  infinitive  ex- 
presses a  past  event. 

Exercises. 

>  1.  Write  three  sentences,  each  containing  a  verb  in  the 
infinitive  depending  on  a  noun — as  many  depending  on  an 
adjective — on  a  pronoun — on  a  verb — an  adverb— a  prepo- 
sition— a  conjunction. 

2.  Change  the  following  abbreviated  forms  into  the  more 
full  form  of  expression : . 

We  know  him  to  be  a  learned  man.  We  have  ever  supposed 
them  to  be  brave  and  honest.  He  judged  him  to  be  an  impostor. 
I  now  see  him  to  be  what  he  ever  professed  to  be.  I  wish  him 
to  learn  music. 

3.  Correct  the  errors  in  the  following  passages : 

I  heard  the  bell  to  ring.  They  urged  him  to  then  become  their 
king.  Tell  him  to  immediately  come.  I  did  not  play,  nor  did  I 
intend  to.  He  went,  and  I  wish  to.  Neglect  not  to  diligently  use 
your  time.  I  did  not  suppose  it  to  be  he.  It  must  be  her.  I» 
thought  it  to  be  she.  Who  did  you  imagine  him  to  be?  Whom 
do  they  say  he  is?  Whom  do  you  think  she  is?  They  obliged 
him  do  it.     You  ought  not  walk.     He  bid  me  to  study.     I  saw 


68  PARTICIPLES. 

them  to  pass  the  river.  He  was  heard  say  it.  The  hordes  were 
let  to  go.  Dare  be  firm.  Live  as  the  Bible  requires  you  to.  I 
understood  it  to  be  he.  I  thought  it  was  him,  but  it  was  not 
him. 


-^ 


LESSON   XXII. 

PARTICIPLES. 

1.  The  Present  or  Imperfect  Participle,  ending  in  i7ig^ 
ex]jresses  an  action,  state,  or  being,  as  continuing  or  pro- 
gressing ;  as,  He  was  observing ;  the  Perfect  Participle 
expresses  action,  state,  or  being,  as  finished  or  completed ; 
as,  observed^  having  observed^  having  been  observed.  The 
last  two  forms  are  denominated  compound, 

2.  The  Imperfect  or  Present  Participle  may  describe  a 
present,  past,  or  future  action ;  as,  "  I  am  observing,"  "  I 
was  observing,"  "I  will  be  observing."  It  describes  an 
action  as  present  at  the  time  specified  by  the  auxiliary  verb 
prefixed  to  it.  So  the  Perfect  Participle  always  expresses 
the  action  as  completed  at  the  time  referred  to  by  the 
principal  verb  ;  as,  "  The  book  is  printed,"  "  it  was  print- 
ed," "  it  will  be  printed."  Hence  the  imperfect  and  the 
perfect  participles  do  not  express  time  abstractly,,  but  by 
means  of  auxiliaries. 

Some  grammarians  designate  the  Participle  as  tlie  Participial 
Mood — a  mood  which  does  not  assert  but  merely  assumes  the 
attribute  as  existing. 

3.  It  is  called  Participle,  because  it  partakes  of  the  na- 
ture of  a  verb  in  marking  time,  and  of  an  adjective  in  ex- 
pressing an  attribute  of  an  object.  It  has  the  same  form 
in  application  to  nouns,  whatever  gender,  number,  case,  or 
person  they  may  be  of. 

To  avoid  ambiguity,  it  must  usually  be  placed  near  the  noun  of 
which  it  expresses  the  attribute.     The  following  sentence  is?  am- 


PARTICIPLES.  69 

bigtious:  "All  the  people  followed  liini  trenMingy  It  was  the 
]t?ec»p?e  that  trembled :  hence  the  participle  should  have  followed 
people. 

4.  The  participle  is  often  used  as  an  adjective.,  to  express 
quality  or  kind  :  thus,  a  learned  man ;  a  loving  friend  ;  an 
acknoicledged  fact. 

The  participle  in  ing  is  also  often  used  as  a  noun.^  either 
hi  the  nominative  or  objective  case.  Z^i-z 

It  is  generally,  though  not  always,  preceded  by  the  article,  and 
followed  by  the  preposition  of  with  an  object ;  as,  ''  A  rising  of 
the  people  is  certain."  "Study  is  essential  to  the  gaining  of 
learning."  ''''Rising  early  conduces  to  health."  ''^Stopping  at 
this  place  is  abaiidoning  all  you  have  done."  ^^^ 

5.  Wheyi  the  imperfect  participle  has  the  force  of  a  verh^ 
that  is,  has  an  object  depending  on  it,  it  should  not  be  pre- 
ceded by  an  article  nor  followed  by  a  preposition ;  as, 

"  By  keeping  God's  commandments,  you  will  prove  your  love 
to  Him."  It  should  not  be  written  either  "  By  the  keeping  God's," 
&c.,  nor  "  By  keeping  of  God's,  &c. 

6.  When  the  participle  has  no  verbal  force — no  object 
depending  on  it — if  an  article  or  adjective  go  before  it,  a 
preposition  should  follow,  but  if  not,  not ;  as, 

"Previous  to  the  closing  of  the  bargain."  '''•  K  final  closing  of 
the  bargain  took  place."  It  must  be  noticed  then,  that  the  arti- 
cle and  the  of  may  be  both  omitted,  or  neither  of  them  may  with- 
out the  other.  ^^ 

7.  To  avoid  ambiguity  in  certain  sentences,  an  impor- 
tant rule  shoidd  be  observed:  that  where  the  participial 
noun  expresses  an  act  of  which  the  following  noun  is  the 
agent,  it  should  have  the  article  and  the  preposition ;  but 
where  the  following  noun  is  the  object  of  the  act  expressed 
by  the  participial,  both  the  article  and  the  preposition  should 
be  omitted. 

As  an  example  of  the  first:  "He  mentioned  the  first  in  the 
^earing  o/ the  philosopher ;"  of  the  second :  "  In  hearing  the  phi- 


70  THE   IMPERFECT    PARTICIPLE. 

haopTier^  he  learned  the  fact.  The  sense  is  often  quite  different, 
with  these  different  modes  of  expression.  "  In  the  hearing  of  the 
philosopher,"  means  quite  a  different  thing  from — "  In  hearing  tho 
philosopher." 

8.  [  Care  must  he  taJcen^  in  the  use  of  Irregular  Verbs^ 
not  to  e'inploy  the  past  tense  for  past  participle.  See  the 
Lesson  on  Irregular  Verbs,  for  illustrationl 

9.  Participles  changed  into  or  used  as  nouns  may  be 
modified  by  adjectives  but  not  by  adverbs : 

Thus,  we  may  say,  "For  the  easy  grasping  of  a  suhject;"  but 
not,  ''For  the  easily  grasping  of  2,  subject."  The  correct  form  of 
the  latter  clause  is,  "For  grasping  a  subject  easily."  Here  the 
participle  has  the  force  of  a  verb,  while  it  is  also  the  object  of  a 
preposition. 

When  a  participle  (used  as  a  noun)  has  a  possessive  noun  or  pro 
noun  before  it,  the  preposition  o/ should  follow  it;  as,  tlieir  wor- 
shipping (?/" idols,  or  the  Jews'  worshipping  q/* idols  was  sinful. 

10.  A  great  dispute  has  within  a  iQ\N  years  past  existed, 
and  is  not  yet  settled,  on  the  question,  whether  the  imper- 
fect participle  should  ever  be  used  in  a  passive  sense^  and 
whether  instead  of  this,  the  passive  participle  with  the  im- 
perfect  active  participle  preceding  it,  should  not  be  used. 
For  instance,  the  question  is  whether  we  should  say,  "  The 
house  is  building^''''  or  "  The  house  is  being  built?''  Present 
use  is  inclining  to  the  latter  form  of  expression,  though  plau- 
sible reasons  are  urged  against  it.     Thus,  Mr.  Harrison : 

If  we  use  the  phrase,  "  The  house  is  huilding^^''  we  speak  of  it 
as  a  thing  from  its  very  nature  not  acting  itself,  and  we  use  the  term 
building  as  expressive  of  a  passive  progressive  condition  of  the 
house.  If  we  say,  "  The  men  are  building,'^''  we  then  have  active 
mstruments,  and  the  term  building  is  an  active  participle  requir- 
ing to  be  followed  by  a  noun.  No  mistake  can  therefore  arise 
from  the  use  of  such  phrases  as,  "  The  house  is  building."  "  Prep- 
arations are  making."  We  use  the  participle  ed  both  actively 
and  passively  :  as,  "  I  have  loved,''^  "  I  am  loved.''''  If  the  passive 
form  ed  can  thus  be  used  both  actively  and  passively,  the  active 


THE    IMPERFECT   PARTICIPLE.  7l 

form,  on  the  same  grounds,  may  be  used  passively  and  actively. 
Besides,  'built^  or  huilded^  implies  a  thing  effected,  an  act  accom- 
plished ;  whereas  deing  implies  something  continuously  present, — a 
continuous  condition.  Where  a  verb  denotes  continuous  action, 
dcing  may  properly  be  applied  to  it,  as  consentaneous  with  the 
fiction  of  the  verb ;  as,  being  feared^  expressive  of  a  continuous 
condition ;  but  a  house  is  either  duilt  or  not  built.  Being  huilt 
includes  incompatible  terms,  progression  and  accomplishment.  It 
combines  perfect  and  imperfect  action.  Becoming  built — the 
house  is  becoming  duilt,  that  is,  approximating  to  accomplishment, 
would  come  nearer  to  the  intended  meaning.  Mr.  Pichburn  says, 
"  Whenever  the  imperfect  participle  is  joined,  by.  an  auxiliary 
verb,  to  a  nominative  capable  of  the  action,  it  is  taken  actively  • 
but,  when  joined  to  one  incapable  of  action,  it  becomes  passive.''^ 

11.  Mr.  Grant  (in  his  English  Grammar)  also  says  :  "  The 
imperfect  participle  is  to  be  substituted  when  progression 
is  to  be  denoted;  as,  The  letter  is  writing.,  was  writing ., 
has  been  writing.^  will  he  writing  *  the  house  is  building., 
was  building.,  has  been  building.,  will  be  building.  Written 
or  built.,  would,  on  the  contrary,  denote  perfection  or  com- 
pletion." 

If  we  object  to  participles  in  ing.,  as  having  an  imperfect  pas- 
sive signification,  on  what  principle  do  we  justify  such  expressions 
as,  "the  verses  read  well,"  when  an  external  agency  is  applied  to 
the  verses,  and  they  in  fact  are  read?  Clearly,  in  such  a  case, 
read  is  an  imperfect  passive  verb:  that  is,  a  verb  denoting  pro- 
gression., or  imperfect  accomplishment.  The  same  may  be  said  oi 
such  phrases  as,  "  the  ingredients  mix  well,"  '^  the  fields  plough 
well,"  "the  corn  thrashes  well,"  "this  is  good  to  eat.,''"'  "a  house 
to  Z«^,"  "an  estate  to  sell.''''  The  agency  in  these  cases  is  external, 
and  the  object  does  not  act,  but  is  acted  upon. 

12.  According  to  most  grammarians,  therefore,  and  the 
usage  of  the  best  writers,  the  imperfect  participle  active  oi 
some  \erbs  has  a  passive  as  well  as  an  active  sense,  and  is 
used  with  the  auxiliary  substantive  verb  to  express  the 
present  tense  of  tlie  passive  progressively — a  continuous 


72  TPTK    IMPERFECT    PARTICIPLE. 

act.     This  is  true  of  verbs  which  in  the  present  passive  ex- 
|)ress  the  completion  of  an  act,  or  an  act  finished. 

Thus,  '-The  house  is  built.''  The  process  of  building  is  ex- 
pressed by  the  imperfect  active  participle  and  an  auxiliary.  "The 
house  is  building."  When,  however,  in  such  verbs,  this  participle 
has  not  a  passive  sense,  or  wliere  the  use  of  it  in  a  passive  sense 
Would  create  ambiguity,  some  other  form  of  expression  should  bo 
used.  For  example :  This  sentence,  ''  The  pirate  is  now  punish- 
ing for  his  iniquity"  would  not  be  admissible  ;  hence  the  expres- 
sion must  be  varied.  "The  pirate  is  now  receiving  (or  sufiering) 
the  punishment  of  his  crime."  Care  and  judgment  are  required 
to  decide  what  those  imperfect  participles  are  which  may  be  used 
in  a  passive  sense,  consistently  with  the  idiom  of  the  language  and 
the  usage  of  good  writers. 

13.  Notwithstanding  the  plausibility  of  the  foregoing 
reasoning,  there  are,  perhaps,  equally  strong  reasons  to  be 
urged  in  favor  of  the  more  modern  usage,  which  seems 
likely  in  a  few  years  to  set  aside  the  other,  having  been 
adopted  by  some  of  the  best  writers,  English  and  Ameri- 
can, and  very  generally  by  the  newspaper  press. 

The  admitted  circumstance  that  the  imperfect  participles  of  only 
a  few  transitive  verbs  can  be  properly  used  in  a  passive  sense, 
while  the  other  form  of  expression  can  be  universally  applied, 
8  an  important  reason  for  adopting  the  latter;  and  those  who  are 
opposed  to  the  latter  may,  perhaps,  become  reconciled  to  it  when 
it  is  suggested  that  it  may  be  easily  and  naturally  regarded  as  a 
convenient  and  abbreviated  method  of  expressing  the  process  ot 
any  work ;  thus,  "  The  house  is  leing  huilt^''''  is  a  brief  way  of 
saying,  "The  house  is  in  process  of  construction — "is  (in  process 
of)  being  built."  "The  book  was  being  prepared"'' — "The  book 
was  (in  process  of)  being  prepared." 

AVhile,  therefore,  good  usage  admits  the  use  of  the  imperfect 
participles  of  a  few  transitive  verbs  in  a  passive  sense,  it  must 
now  be  acknowledged  that  perhaps  equally  respectable  and  far 
more  general  usage  is  in  favor  of  employing  the  perfect  participle 
preceded  by  the  imperfect  partici[)le  to  denote  the  process  or  pro- 
gression of  any  work. 


EXERCISES   ON    PARTICIPLES.  73 

14.  The  Participle  is  often  used  in  an  absolute  manner^ 
not  depending  on  other  words ;  for  instance,  ^''Returning 
home,  I  found  my  father  sick." 

15.  A  noun  before  an  imperfect  or  perfect  participle,  used 
as  a  noun,  must  be  in  the  possessive  case ;  as,  "  Much  will 
depend  on  the  doctor's  coming  frequently."  "  His  com 
ing  may  restore  the  patient," 


^ 


LESSON  XXIII. 

EXERCISES    ON   PARTICIPLES. 

Write  the  following  sentences  in  accordance  with  the 
observations  in  the  last  lesson. 

I  charge  him  with  a  forsaking  his  duty.  Noah  prepared  an 
ark  for  the  saving  his  house.  By  the  obtaining  wisdom  you  will 
secure  esteem.  In  avoiding  of  one  error,  guard  against  its  oppo- 
site. By  obtaining  of  money,  you  will  have  the  means  of  travel- 
ling. This  was  said  in  hearing  of  many  persons.  By  the  omit- 
ting to  attend  to  my  commission,  he  caused  me  great  loss.  On 
hearing  of  his  mistake,  he  offered  an  apology.  The  book  is  read- 
ing by  a  friend.  I  could  have  saw  them.  Father  come  home  an 
hour  ago.  Have  the  books  came?  The  moon  has  rose.  The  lad- 
der has  fell.  My  faith  was  not  shook  by  that  event.  The  boat 
was  drove  ashore.  The  question  is  now  discussing.  A  great 
scene  is  now  enacting  at  Harper's  Ferry.  An  effort  is  making  to 
eject  him.  The  bridge  was  building.  Many  elegant  churches  are 
now  erecting  in  New  York.  While  the  ceremony  was  performing, 
many  withdrew.  Gold  is  found  in  California.  Goods  are  now 
selling  at  very  low  prices.  Tlie  court  was  then  holding.  A  re- 
port of  the  speech  is  now  printing.  Garments  are  now  preparing. 
A  brilliant  victory  was  winning.  In  the  hearing  of  the  will  read, 
much  time  was  occupied.  He  was  remarkable  in  the  patient  suf- 
fering calamities,  or  in  patient  suffering  of  ills.  This  was  no  bet- 
ter than  rejecting  of  the  proposal.     The  learning  any  trade  well  is 


74  THE    ADVERB. 

the  right  course.  Meekness  appears  in  suffering  of  wrong — ^in  the 
suffering  wrong — in  the  suffering  of  wrong,  patiently.  Because  of 
indulging  his  sons,  the  Lord  chastised  old  Eli.  This  was  the  same 
as  the  rejecting  the  proposal. 


LESSON  XXIV. 

THE    ADVERB. 

1.  The  adverb  is  a  word  used  to  modify  or  limit  the 
meaning  of  a  verb,  or  participle,  of  an  adjective,  or  of  an- 
other adverb.  It  also,  sometimes,  modifies  a  noun,  a  prep- 
osition, the  clause  of  a  sentence,  and  even  a  whole  sentence. 

It  is  a  convenient  and  most  important  class  of  words,  express- 
ing in  a  single  word  what  would  otherwise  require  several  words, 
and  thus  rendering  language  more  concise  and  impressive.  Thus, 
solemnly  expresses  the  same  idea  as  the  phrase,  in  a  solemn  man- 
ner. 

2.  Adverbs  are  either  primitive,  or  derivative  ;  the 
former  being  used  only  as  adverbs  (e.  g.,  not^  now^  theriy 
&c.) ;  tlie  latter  being  derived  from  nouns  or  adjectives ; 
as,  nightZy,  hour/?/ ;  soft///,  pio\is/?/,  meek/y. 

Classes  of  Adverbs. 

(1.)  Adverhs  of  Place,  which  answer  to  the  questions,  where? 
whither?  whence?  and  indicate  either  the  place  in  which^  to 
which^  ox  from  which.  Among  these  are,  Aere,  where^  there^  yon- 
der^ nowhere^  up^  down^  anywhere^  somewhere^  elsewhere^  within^ 
without^  whither^  thither^  hither^  whence^  &c. 

(2.)  Adverbs  of  Time,  answering  to  the  questions,  when?  how 
often  ?  referring  to  time  past  ;  as,  yesterday.^  lately^  recently .^  al- 
■)eady^  &c.  :  to  time  present;  as,  now^  to-day^  instantly^  &c. :  to 
time  future;  as,  hereafter^  to-morrow^  ly-and-ly^  &c. :  to  time 
absolute  ;  as,  never^  always^  ever.,  &c. :  to  time  relative  ;  as,  then.^ 
ichen^  l)efore.^  after .^wMle.^  &c. :  to  time  repeated  ;  as,  often.,  again^ 
occasionally.,  &c. :  to  order  of  time  ;  rs.,  first.,  secondly.,  &c. 


CLASSES   OF   ADVERBS.  75 

(8.)  Adverbs  of  Number,  answering  to  the  question,  how  many  ? 
as,  once^  twice^  &;g.^  firstly^  secondly^  &c. 

(4.)  Adverbs  of  DEaREE,  answering  to  the  question,  how  much? 
as,  little,  much,  greatly,  very,  far,  full,  fully,  enough,  infinitely^ 
scarcely,  but,  partly,  merely,  almost,  how,  however,  &c. 

(5.)  Adverbs  of  Ma:nnek,  answering  to  the  question,  how? 
These  are  subdivided  (1)  into  adverbs  of  quality;  as,  well,  ill^ 
wisely,  fain,  &c.  (2)  Of  doubt ;  as,  possibly.  (3)  Of  affirma- 
tion; as,  truly,  doubtless,  yea,  yes,  indeed,  &c.  (4)  Of  negation  ; 
as,  no,  not,  nay,  by  no  means,  not  at  all,  &c.  (5)  Of  interroga- 
tion ;  as,  how,  why,  wherefore,  &c.  (6)  Of  comparison;  as, 
more,  most,  better,  best,  worse,  worst,  less,  least,  very,  almost,  little^ 
aliJce,  &c. 

(6.)  Adverbs  of  place  (here,  there,  and  where)  compounded  with 
a  preposition  ;  as,  hereof,  thereof,  whereof;  hereto,  thereto,  where- 
to ;  hereby,  &c.  ;  herewith,  &c. ;  herein,  &c. ;  therefore  (therefor), 
&c. ;  hereupon,  &c. 

(7.)  Adverbs  compounded  of  a  noun  with  a  prefix  a,  used  in- 
stead of  at  or  on  ;  as,  aside,  ahead,  &c. 

(8.)  Conjoining  Adverbs  or  Adverbial  Conjunctions ;  as,  when, 
where,  whence,  wherever,  &c.,  which  often  conjoin  sentences,  be- 
Bides  expressing  the  attributes  of  time  and  place. 

3.  Comparative  and  Superlative  Degrees  of  an  adverb 
are  expressed,  in  some  cases,  by  adding  er  and  est  to  the 
simple  adverb  ;  in  other  cases  by  prefixing  mnore  and  most ; 
as,  soon^  sooner^  soonest ;  truly,  more  truly,  most  truly. 
Other  adverbs  are  irregular  ;  as,  badly ^  worse^  worst  / 
niuch^  m,ore^  most ;  well^  better,  best. 


LESSON   XXV. 

POSITION    OF    ADVERBS   IN   A   SENTENCE,    AND   THEIR   MIS- 
APPLICATION. 

1.  The  adverbs  only  and  merely  are  very  liable  to  be  wrongly 
placed ;  thus,  in  the  sentence :  "  We  find  that  the  words  were  not 
only  uttered  by  a  mortal  man  like  onrf^elves,  but  by  one  who  wn.^ 


70  MISAPPLICATION   OF   ADVERBS. 

more  tlian  most  others  exposed,"  &c.  This  position  oi  only  leads 
ns  to  expect  that  some  other  act  than  utterance  was  performed, 
whereas  it  should  have  been  so  placed  as  to  present  the  antithesis 
between  a  mortal  man,  simply,  and  other  men  peculiarly  exposed, 
&c.  Hence  not  only  should  be  placed  after  uttered.  The  arrange- 
ii.ent  would  be  still  better  thus  :  ''  These  words  were  uttered  by 
a  man  not  only  mortal  like  ourselves,  but  by  one,"  &c. 

2.  The  meaning  of  a  sentence  may  he  altogether  changed  iy 
different  locations  of  this  adverb.  Thus  :  "  I  only  am  left  to  tell 
thee,"  means,  "  I,  and  no  one  besides."  "  I  am  left  only  to  tell 
tliee,"  means,  "  I  am  left  for  no  other  purpose  than  to  tell 
thee."  "I  am  left  to  tell  thee  only^^''  means,  "to  tell  no  other 
person^ 

The  following  sentence  requires  correction  :  "  He  had  suffered 
the  woodward  only  to  use  his  discretion  in  the  distant  woods. 
In  the  groves  about  his  house,  he  allowed  no  marking  hammer 
but  his  own."  This  means  that  he  had  suffered  no  other  person 
than  the  woodward  to  use,  &c. ;  but  the  next  sentence  shows  that 
a  different  meaning  was  intended,  and  which  is  conveyed  by 
placing  only  after  woods.  The  best  arrangement  is  the  following  : 
"It  was  in  the  distant  woods  only  that  he  suffered  the  wood- 
ward," &c. 

3.  The  adverbs  chiefly^  at  lea^t^  firs%  require  similar  care  in 
their  location. 

4.  Ever  and  never  should  not  be  confounded  and  misapplied,  as 
in  the  following  instances:  ''The  Lord  is  king,  be  the  people 
never  so  impatient."  "  If  I  make  myself  never  so  clean."  "  Charm 
he  never  so  wisely."  "  Let  the  offence  be  of  never  so  high  a  na- 
ture." The  word  never  is  an  adverb  of  time,  and  not  of  degree, 
whereas,  in  such  sentences,  an  adverb  of  degree  is  wanted,  and 
ecer^  being  an  adverb  of  degree  as  well  as  of  time,  is  proper  to  be 
used  instead  of  never.  So  in  the  following  example  :  "  If  I  take 
eser  so  much  of  this,  it  will  not  hurt  me." 

5.  A  double  negative  is  not  consistent  with  modern  polite  usage, 
if  a  negation  be  intended.  ''''Nor  did  he  not  observe  them," 
means,  ''  He  did  observe  them."  "  His  manners  are  not  inele- 
gant," means,  "His  manners  are  (somewhat)  elegant."  Such  a 
phrase  as,  "  He  did  not  pay  nothing^''''  must  not  therefore  be  used 
to  express  the  idea,  "  He  did  not  pay  any  thing." 


POSITION    OF    ADVERBS.  77 

6.  Exceedingly  is  usually  applied  in  a  good  sense;  excesshely 
ill  a  bad  sense;  as,  ^^exceedingly  good;"  '''•excessively  bad." 

7.  Only  must  not  be  confounded  with  alone;  as,  "The  alone 
God."  It  should  be,  "  The  only  God ;"  i.  e.,  there  is  no  other  be- 
sides him.  ''The  alone  God"  would  mean,  "God  unattended  by 
another." 

Exercises. 

Write  correctly,  as  to  arrangement  and  use  of  adverbs, 
the  following  sentences : 

I  am  resolved  to  have  that  pleasure,  whether  I  am  there  or  no. 
Whether  love  be  natural  or  no.  Not  only  we  found  her  busy, 
but  pleased  and  happy  even.  We  always  should  prefer  happiness 
to  ])leasure.  He  was  excessively  generous.  The  other  was  ex- 
ceedingly mean.  Never  so  little  medicine  is  injurious.  ^  Gentle- 
men are  not  requested  to  enter  the  ladies'  cabin.  I  never  did 
repent  of  doing  good,  nor  shall  not  now.  Never  no  imitator  grew 
up  to  his  author.  Never  so  little  labor  wearies  her.  I  cannot  by 
no  means  allow  you  to  do  this.  Nor  let  no  physician  be  sent  for. 
Ariosto,  Tasso,  Galileo,  no  more  than  Raphael,  were  not  born  in 
republics. 


LESSON   XXVI. 

POSITION    OF   ADVERBS    IN   A    SENTENCE. 

Great  care  must  be  taken,  in  locating  the  adverb,  to 
indicate  clearly  what  word  or  clause  it  is  designed  to  limit 
or  modify.  Neglect  here  often  destroys  the  perspicuity  of 
a  sentence,  or  perverts  its  meaning. 

The  general  rule  requires  adverbs,  for  the  most  part,  to 
be  placed  before  adjectives,  after  verbs  active  or  neuter, 
and  frequently  between  the  auxiliary  and  the  principal 
verb  ;  as,  *'He  pronounced  a  very  excellent  discourse."  "  lie 
pronounced  his  discourse  excellently^  and  was  attentively 
heard ?^ 


78  POSITION   OF   ADVERBS. 

1.  The  adverb  is  placed  before  the  participles  and  the  adverbs 
which  it  modifies  ;  as,  "  He  is  much  helovedy  "  He  is  very  much 
beloved." 

2.  The  adverb  commonly  follows  a  verb  wlien  single;  as,  *^He 
fought  Iravely  ;^''  but  when,  without  obscuring  the  sense,  it  will 
sound  better  to  place  the  adverb  before  the  verb,  it  may  thus  be 
placed;  as,  ''He  often  came  to  the  house." 

3.  The  adverb  usually  follows  the  object  of  a  transitive  verb; 
as,  *'She  recited  her  lesson  admirably y 

4.  In  a  sentence  containing  one  auxiliary  verb  and  a  participle, 
the  adverb  is  usually  placed  between  them,  or  after  the  participle; 
as,  "He  was  politely  treated;"  or,  "He  was  treated  politely  ^ 

5.  If  the  sentence  contain  two  auxiliaries,  the  adverb  generally 
follows  the  second ;  as,  "  He  has  been  politely  treated  ;"  yet  it 
may  in  this  case  also  follow  the  participle;  as,  "He  has  been 
treated  politely.^''  Not  unfrequently,  for  emphasis,  the  adverb 
precedes  the  auxiliaries  ;  as,  "  And  assuredly  you  were  not  igno- 
rant of  the  fact." 

6.  Emphatic  adverbs  may  commence  a  sentence;  as,  '''' Neter 
was  there  a  falser  statement."  Emphatic  adverbs  may  be  placed 
apart  from  the  word  they  modify;  as,  "How  wonderfully  this 
man  triumphed  over  every  difficulty !"  Interrogatory  and  ex- 
clamatory phrases  and  sentences  require  this  position  of  the  ad- 
verb. 

7.  The  adverb  should  not  be  used  as  an  adjective,  being  not 
designed  to  express  quality,  but  manner;  as,  "The  then  Con- 
gress." "  Thine  often  infirmities."  "  It  appeared  strangely!''' 
"How  beautifully  she  appeared!"  In  such  cases  an  adjective 
should  be  used  in  place  of  the  adverb.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
adjective  should  not  be  used  in  place  of  the  adverb  ;  as,  "  exces- 
sive stupid,"  for  "excessively  stupid." 

8.  The  adverb  not  follows,  while  the  adverb  ne'oer  precedes,  the 
principal  verb  (or  its  auxiliary),  to  which  they  refer ;  as,  "  He 
did  not  come,  as  he  promised."  No  should  not  be  used  in  the 
sense  of  not  in  such  connections;  as  in  the  sentence,  "  He  did  not 
say  whether  he  would  go  or  no  ;"  that  is,  no  (go).  It  should  be 
not.     "  She  never  comes  to  see  us  "     "  She  comes  not  to  see  us." 

9.  Hence^  thence^  and  ichence  should  never  b^  preceded  hy  from 
as  being  implied. 


EXERCISES    UPON    ADVERBS.  79 

10.  ITever  use  how  before  the  conjunction  that^  nor  instead  ot 
tiat ;  as,  ''He  declared  how  that  he  woidd  go;"  "He  declared 
how  he  would  be  there."     It  .should  be  :   ''  He  declared  that^''^  &c. 

11.  The  word  enough  M\ov7^  the  adjective  and  the  noun;  as, 
"Bread  enough^  and  to  s[K'ire."  "The  place  was  large  enoughy 
In  the  first  of  these  instances,  the  word  is  used  adjectively,  and,  ai3 
an  adjective,  should  never  be  placed  before  the  uoun. 

12.  Do  not  place  an  adverb  immediately  after  to  of  the  infini- 
tive ;  as,  "  Be  careful  to  never  violate  the  Sabbath."  It  should  bo 
written,  "  never  to  violate." 

Exercises. 

Write  correctly,  as  to  arrangement  and  proper  use  of 
adverbs,  the  following  sentences : 

The  bridge  will  be  never  completed.  It  is  unpleasant  continu- 
ally to  be  at  work.  This  construction  sounds  rather  harshly.  He 
impertinently  spoke  to  me.  The  adjective  is  put  absolutely. 
Such  proceedings  are  of  seldom  occurrence.  Velvet  feels  smoothly. 
Seldom  or  ever  do  we  see  those  forsaken  who  trust  in  God.  From 
thence  he  came  to  Rome.  From  hence  you  must  discover  your 
error.  His  place  is  enough  large.  You  see  how  that  not  many 
wise  men  are  called.  I  have  near  finished  this  lesson.  I  was 
aware  how  that  they  had  heard  it.  He  proceeded  to  wisely  dis- 
course upon  the  event.  See  whether  this  be  thy  son's  coat  or  no. 
I  have  enough  cake.  Ascertain  whether  it  is  so  or  no.  Nothing 
never  can  justify  your  act.  Fj-om  whence  art  thou  ?  I  did  not 
like  neither  him  nor  his  mother.  Be  sure  to  correctly  locate  the 
adverbs  in  a  sentence.  Nobody  never  invented  nothing  so  com- 
plete as  this  machine.  He  was  scarce  sensible  of  it.  Never  take 
no  shape  nor  appearance  of  hypocrisy.  I  have  dissertations  on 
the  prophecies  which  have  remarkably  been  fulfilled.  He  told  me 
how  that  he  would  go  to  New  York.  Instead  of  looking  con- 
temptuously down  on  the  crooked  in  mind  or  in  body,  we  should 
look  up  thankfully  to  God,  who  has  made  us  to  differ.  If  you  are 
blessed  naturally  with  a  good  memory,  continually  exercise  it. 


/ 


80  PBEPOSITIONS. 


LESSON  XXVII. 

PREPOSITIONS. 

1.  These  are  words  placed  before  nouns,  or  an  equiva- 
lent, for  the  purpose  of  expressing  the  relation  which  they 
sustain  to  some  word  or  words  which  the  phrase  is  thus 
made  to  qualify.  Such  word  or  words  may  be  called  the 
antecedent,  or  subjective  term  of  relation ;  the  word  or 
words  introduced  by  the  preposition,  and  dependent  on  it, 
form  the  consequent,  or  objective  term  of  relation.  The 
antecedent  term  is  ascertained  by  using  the  interrogative 
what  before  the  preposition  ;  the  consequent  by  using  what 
after  the  preposition. 

Thus  :  "  Out  of  every  grove  the  voice  of  pleasure  warbles;"  we 
ask,  what  is  out  of  &c.  ?  and  the  answer  gives  us  the  antecedent 
relative,  i.  e.,  "the  voice  of  pleasure  warbles."  We  ask  again,  out 
of  what  f  The  answer  is,  ''  every  grove,"  and  this  is  the  objec- 
tive or  consequent  relative. 

2.  Prepositions  require  the  noun  or  pronoun  following 
them  to  be  in  the  objective  case ;  as,  "  he  came  to  me  and 
to  them?'* 

Sentences  and  clauses  are  sometimes  the  objects  of  prepositions ; 
in  other  words,  the  consequent  term  of  relation ;  as,  "  Besides 
selling  his  hooJcs^  he  gave  up  his  situation."  ''  From  what  has 
leen  said^  "  Without  seeking  any  more  justifiable  reasons^ 
''  In  comparing  the  proofs^''  &c. 

The  object  of  a  preposition  is  sometimes  omitted ;  as,  "  He  is  a 
man  I  became  acquainted  m^A,"  that  is,  ''''whom  I  became  ac- 
quainted withy  The  antecedent  term  of  relation  is  sometimes 
omitted ;  as,  "  [To  speak]  in  a  word,  he  is  ruined." 


PROPER   SELECTION    OF    PRKPOSITIONS.  81 


Selection  of  Prepositions. 

3.  Care  is  required  to  select  suitable  prepositions.  As  a 
general  rule,  Latin,  Greek,  and  French  derivatives  are  fol- 
lowed by  a  preposition  corresponding  with  that  used  in  the 
compound  word  ;  thus,  "  to  eccpel  from  y"  "  to  sympathize 
with ;^'>  "to  a(^apt  ^o."  This  rule,  however,  is  often  de- 
parted from  ;  as,  "  aversion  i5o"  (not  from) ;  "  to  submit 
to^^  (not  under) ;  "  we  prefer  ^o"  (not  before) ;  &c. 

(1.)  The  preposition  of  used  improperly  for  on. 

**He  is  resolved  o/ going,"  &c.  ''He  was  dependent  of  the 
Papal  crown."     "  He  called  ^that  person,  and  waited  o/him." 

Of  IS  improperly  supplied  after  some  words;  as,  ''  It  decides  of 
the  fortunes  of  men ;"  ''  rain  has  been  falling  of  a.  long  time." 

Q/" is  improperly  used  for  in;  as,  "  He  found  difficulty  of  writ' 
ing." 

Of  instead  o^  for ;  as,  "It  might  have  given  me  a  taste  of  its 
antiquities."  \  taste  of  o.  thing  implies  actual  enjoyment  of  it;  a 
taste /or  a  thing  implies  only  a  capacity  of  enjoyment. 

(2.)  Kespecting  the  prepositions  to  and /or. 

After ^  improperly  used  instead  of  to ;  as,  "He  had  a  great  re- 
gard after  his  futlier's  commands." 

To^  improperly  used  instead  of  ^pon;  as,  "  You  have  bestowed 
your  favors  to  the  most  deserving." 

Instead  of  of;  as,  "  His  abhorrence  to  that  superstitious  figure." 
"It  was  no  diminution  to  his  greatness." 

Instead  of  for  ;  as,  "  A  good  change  to  the  better." 

Instead  of  against;  as,  "Your  prejudice  to  my  cause." 

Instead  of  from  ;  as,  "  The  English  were  a  different  people  then 
to  what  they  are  at  present."  "  He  regarded  it  as  a  derogation  of 
his  sufficiency." 

Instead  of  with;  as,  "In  compliance  to  the  declaration,"  &c. 

For^  used  improperly  instead  of  of;  as,  "  There  is  no  need  for 
it."  "  It  is  more  than  they  thought/or."  "  More  than  he  knows 
/or."     Here  the/or  is  suj)erflu()us. 

(3.)  Errors  in  relation  to  with  and  upon. 

With  improperly  used  instead  of  to  ;  as,  "  Reconciling  himself 
4* 


82  PROPER   SELKCTIOK    OF    PREPOSITIONS. 

with  the  king."  "  Those  things  which  have  resemblance  with 
each  other,"  &c.  ''  Consonant  with  one  common  nature."  "  Agree- 
able with  the  sacred  text." 

With  ])roperly  denotes  concomitancy  or  assistance ;  hy^  the 
proximate  cause  or  instrument;  as,  "The  soldiers  entered  the 
breach  m^A  loaded  muskets;  their  leader  fell  mortally  wounded 
hy  a  musket-ball."  We  may  say,  "  with  prayers  and  tears  he  sup- 
];licated  pardon,"  because  prayers  and  tears  are  not  instruments 
but  accompaniments  of  the  act. 

On  and  upon  ought  to  be  distinguished,  as  the  signification  of  in 
differs  from  that  of  into;  as,  "The  bird  flew  upon  {up  on)  the 
house,  and  when  there,  sat  on  the  roof."  In  the  first  case  motion 
to  is  implied  ;  in  the  second,  simply  a  state  of  rest.  Again  up  on 
(upon)  would  properly  signify  elevation^  and  a  state  of  rest.  Upon^ 
however,  does  not  always  imply  motion  up^  or  even  elevation; 
for  we  say,  "  He  threw  himself  upon  the  ground."  Thus,  on  and 
upon  are  usually  confounded. 

With^  instead  oifrom  ;  as,  "  I  dissent  with  the  examiner." 

Upon^  or  on^  improperly  used  instead  of  of;  as,  "  It  is  a  use  that  I 
should  not  have  tliought  (97^."    "  He  was  made  much  on  at  Argos." 

Upoji  and  on^  used  wrongly  instead  of  in  ;  as,  "  A  greater  quan- 
tity may  be  taken  from  the  heap,  without  making  any  sensible  al- 
teration upon  it."  "  Intrusted  to  persons  on  whom  the  parliament 
30uld  confide." 

Upon^  instead  of  over  ;  as,  'Mf  policy  can  prevail  upon  force." 

(4.)  Errors  respecting  m,  from.,  &c. 

In^  used  wrongly  instead  of  about  or  concerning ;  as,  "They 
5?hould  be  informed  in  some  parts  of  his  character." 

Into.,  instead  of  under;  as,  "Upon  such  occasions  as  fell  into 
their  cognizance,"  &c. 

Into.,  instead  of  in  ;  as,  "  That  variety  of  factions  into  which  we 
are  still  engaged." 

As  the  preposition  in  implies  rest.^  and  into.^  motion  to.,  it  is 
plain  that,  when  two  verbs  differ  in  meaning,  one  implying  motion 
and  the  other  where.,  they  cannot  properly  be  followed  by  one  and 
the  same  preposition;  as,  ''^rushed  and  expired  in  the  flames," 
that  is,  "  rushed  into  and  expired  in  the  flames." 

From^  instead  of  ly  ;  as,  "  Could  he  have  profited /rom  repeated 
experiences." 


EXERCISES   ON    PREPOSlTIONSv  83 

Fi'om  superfluous  oit^v  forbear  ;  as,  ''  He  could  not  forbear  from 
appointing  the  pope,"  &c. 

After  wrongly  used  instead  of  of;  as,  "A  strict  observance 
after  times  and  fashions." 

Out  of  instead  of  from;  as,  "Neither  of  them  shall  make  me 
swerve  out  of  the  path." 

Among^  because  it  implies  a  number  of  things,  cannot  properly 
be  connected  with  every ^  which  relates  to  one  thing;  as,  "Which 
is  found  among  every  species  of  liberty."  "  The  opinion  seemed 
to  gain  ground  among  everybody." 

(5.)  2'o  is  used  before  nouns  of  place  after  verbs  of  motion ;  as, 
"  I  went  to  town."  At  is  used  generally  after  the  verb  to  he;  as, 
"  I  have  been  at  New  York ;"  "  I  was  at  the  place  you  speak  of;" 
"He  arrived  at  Boston."  Before  countries,  cities,  and  large 
towns,  in  is  used,  while  before  villages,  single  houses,  and  cities 
in  distant  countries,  at  is  used  ;  as,  "  He  lives  in  South  America," 
"  at  Valparaiso."     "  He  lives  at  Irvington." 

It  is  very  seldom  that  good  usage  allows  of  an  ellipsis  of  the 
preposition.  It  is  in  some  cases  allowed  after  worthy  and  Ian- 
ished. 

Sometimes  either  of  two  prepositions  may  be  used  with  pro- 
priety;  as,  "Expert  at  a  thing,"  or  "Expert  in  a  thing." 

When  prepositions  are  subjoined  to  nouns,  they  are  generally 
the  same  as  the  corresponding  verbs  require;  as,  "a  compliance 
m^A,"  "to  comply  with;''''  "a  disposition  to  tyranny,"  "a  dis- 
position to  tyrannize." 

Between  properly  relates  only  to  two  objects  or  classes  of  objects. 

Among  or  amidst  relates  to  more  than  two,  or  to  surrounding 
objects. 

Exercise. 

Write  out  correctly  all  the  above  examples,  and  those 
which  follow : 

He  feels  a  difficulty  of  fixing  his  mind.  He  was  accused  for 
betraying  his  master.  To  this  he  has  no  better  defence  than 
that.  He  confides  on  you.  You  have  no  occasion  of  his  aid. 
We  searched  the  man  whom  he  suspected  for  stealing  his  purse. 
He  entertained  a  prejudice  to  her.     He  relied  in  the  report  made 


84  COLLOCATION   OF   PREPOSITIONS. 

to  him.  The  two  men  differ  widely  with  each  other.  Aside  of 
all  regard  to  honor,  keep  clear  of  it.  They  are  gone  in  the  fields. 
Divide  an  apple  between  the  three.  The  news  has  passed  among 
every  one  of  them.  They  quarrelled  among  each  other.  Amidst 
every  danger  he  remained  firm.     I  was  at  Philadelphia  last  year. 

We  were  detained  to  the  house  and  tlius  disappointed  in  our 
walk.  This  originated  from  the  mistake  of  the  servant.  It  has 
no  comnmuication  to  tlie  other  building.  1  am  disappointed  of^ 
the  performance  as  inferior  to  what  Was  promised.  Be  worthy 
me,  as  I  am  unworthy  you.  On  this  side  the  river.  The  two  sat 
opposite  each  otlier.  Ovid  was  banished  Rome.  It  is  worthy  your 
care.  There  was  a  contest  between  a  lion,  an  ass,  and  a  fox.  His 
conduct  is  agreeable  with  his  promise.  Take  hold  on  it.  The 
master  witli  his  servant  were  lost.  I  was  thinking  on  that.  De- 
pending of  his  relations  to  do  it  for  him.  More  than  we  thought 
for. 

Without  you  see  miracles.  They  quarrel  among  one  another. 
Among  a  nation  so  civilized.  Made  much  on  it.  No  need  for 
that.  Free  of  blame.  Different  to  what  is  said.  It  was  divided 
between  fifty.  We  value  ourselves  by  drawing.  He  restored 
himself  into  the  good  graces  of  the  critics.  They  congratulated 
to  themselves.  Between  you  and  I,  he  is  not  to  be  relied  on.  Do 
you  know  who  you  are  speaking  to?  Who  does  he  speak  to  so 
impertinently?  They  lived  some  time  at  France.  He  lives  at 
New  York.  He  cast  it  in  the  water.  Come  in  this  yard.  We 
are  sometimes  disappointed  of  things,  which  before  possession 
prornised  great  enjoyment. 


LESSON   XXVill. 

PREPOSITIONS. — THEIR    COLLOCATION   AND    REPETITION. 

1.  Prepositions,  like  Adverbs,  should  generally  be  placed 
as  near  as  possible  to  the  antecedent  and  consequent  term^ 
of  relation. 

The  name  implies  that  the  Preposition  precedes  the  word  do 


KEPETITION    OF   PREPOSITIONS.  85 

pending  on  it  in  grammatical  construction,  but  poets  frequently 
reverse  this  order ;  as,  "  the  woods  among, '''^ 

2.  It  is  an  idiom  of  the  English  language,  more,  however, 
in  familiar  than  in  solemn  discourse,  that  the  prepositions 
of^  to^  i7i,  for^  &c.,  are  often  placed  at  the  end  of  a  sen- 
tence, considerably  removed  from  the  noun  or  pronoun 
that  depends  upon  them ;  as, 

"  Tliese  are  matters  wTiich  he  is  entirely  ignorant  o/;"  ''  wJiat 
he  is  an  entire  stranger  to ;  ^'"wMcTi  he  is  engaged  m;"  '•'the  sum 
which  he  sold  it/6>r;",that  is,  "matters  of  wMch^''  ''  to  what^"^  &c. 

3.  The  preposition  is  sometimes,  though  inelegantly, 
separated  from  its  noun,  because  another  preposition  is 
connected  also  with  it;  as,  "To  suppose  the  zodiac  and 
planets  to  be  efficient  o/*,  and  antecedent  to^  themselves." 
In  forms  of  law,  where  great  exactness  is  required,  this 
mode  of  expression  may  be  tolerated,  but  in  all  other  com- 
positions it  may,  and  should,  generally  be  avoided. 

4.  The  preposition  may  in  some  cases  be  repeated  with 
good  effect : 

Thus  Gibbon:  "Exhausted  ly  the  abuse  of  her  strength,  ly 
superstition,  her  pride  might,"  (fee. ;  "  the  favorites  of  fortune 
united  every  refinement  of  conveniences,  of  elegance,  and  oj 
splendor."  So  Paul :  /n  journeyings  often,  in  ])erils  of  waters,  in 
perils  of  robbers,  &c.     See  2  Cor.  xi.  26. 

The  repetition  of  the  preposition  causes  the  mind  to  dwell  on 
each  object  of  interest.  In  the  Litany  of  the  Church  of  England 
the  preposition  from  is  found  sixteen  times  in  four  short  clauses, 
and  in  the  two  following  clauses  great  earnestness  is  expressed  by 
the  repetition  ly  before  each  member  of  the  prayer:  '-^ By  X\\q 
mystery  of  thy  holy  incarnation;  Sy  thy  holy  nativity  and  cir- 
cumcision ;  hy  thy  baptism,  fasting,  and  temptation,  Good  Lord, 
deliver  us!"  ^'' By  thine  agony  and  bloody  sweat;  hy  thy  cross 
and  passion  ;  hy  thy  precious  death  and  burial ;  hy  thy,"  &c. 

5.  Avoid  a  needless  use  of  the  preposition;  as,  "His  ser- 
vants ye  are  to  whom  ye  obey." 


86  EXERCISES    ON    PREPOSITIONS. 


Exercises. 

1.  Write  the  following  sentences  so  as  to  conform  to 
Observation  3. 

He  came  to,  but  was  driven  from,  the  city  of  Boston.  He  was 
hired  to  take  care  of,  and  to  give  feed  to,  some  horses.  We  saw 
an  opossum,  which  the  native  discovered  in  a  tree  and  climbed  up 
for.     He  boasted  of,  and  contended  for,  the  privilege. 

2.  Place  the  preposition  and  its  object,  in  the  following 
sentences,  in  a  position  which  will  render  the  sense  more 
obvious  and  the  sentence  more  agreeable. 

Errors  are  sometimes  chargeable  to  the  most  celebrated  wri- 
ters, with  respect  to  the  use  of  shall  and  will.  He  introduced  as 
great  a  variety  as  possible  of  cadences.  Establish  to  yourselves 
au  interest  in  him  who,  in  his  hand,  holds  the  reins  of  the  whole 
creation.  A  ready-made  fortune  seldom  fits  the  man  who  comes 
into  possession,  like  ready-made  clothing.  He  offered  several 
exhortations  to  them  suitable  to  their  condition.  Precision  is  to 
be  studied  above  all  things  in  laying  down  a  method.  There  are 
some  defects  which  must  be  acknowledged  in  the  Odyssey.  Beau- 
ties, however,  there  are,  in  the  concluding  books,  of  the  tragic 
kind.  On  a  tombstone  in  a  certain  churchyard  is  to  be  seen  the 
following  touching  epitaph:  "Erected  to  the  memory  of  John 
Phillips,  accidentally  shot,  as  a  mark  of  affection  by  his  brother." 
Many  who  would  not  utter  a  falsehood  for  the  world,  are  yet 
eternally  scheming  to  produce  false  impressions  respecting  facts, 
characters,  and  opinions  on  the  minds  of  others. 

3.  In  writing  the  following  sentences,  omit  the  superflu- 
ous prepositions ; 

The  house  came  together  to  consider  of  the  matter.  A  gang  of 
banditti  sought  to  be  plundering  of  Eome.  Notwithstanding  of 
his  learning,  he  could  not  retain  his  position.  God  divided  be- 
tween the  light  and  between  the  darkness.  This  verb  cannot 
admit  of  an  objective  case  after  it.  God  is  now  punishing  of  that 
nation. 


CONJUNCTIONS.  87 

4.  Some  prepositions  with  their  objects,  may  be  repeated 
Mdth  good  effect  in  the  following : 

In  perils  by  the  heathen,  in  the  city,  the  wilderness,  the  sea, 
among  false  brethren ;  in  weariness  and  painfulness,  watchings 
often,  hunger  and  thirst,  cold  and  nakedness. 


LESSON  XXIX. 

CONJUNCTIONS    OR    CONNECTIVES. 

1.  This  class  of  words  is  used  to  connect  words,  phrases, 
clauses,  and  sentences. 

The  conjunction  that  often  introduces  a  sentence  or  clause  which 
is  the  subject  or  object  of  a  verb  ;  as,  "  That  Webster  was  a  pow- 
erful reasoner,  is  universally  admitted."  "That  Washington 
Irving  is  one  of  the  most  elegant  of  American  writers,  no  one 
questions." 

2.  There  are  certain  conjunctions  whose  correlatives 
ought  to  be  carefully  attended  to.  (Thus  arranged  by 
Harrison.) 

I  am  the  same  to-day . ..  .as  yesterday. 
It  was  exactly  such,-. ,..  ,as  this. 

The  same  man that  (Relat.  Pron.),  not  <w,  I  spoke  of. 

This  man  is  as  tall as  that,  i.  «.,  as  that  is. 

He  is  not  so  worthy as  she, — as  she  is. 

Both  this and  that. 

Whether  this or  that.* 

Neither  this nor  that. 

2^0  other than  (not  lut)  this. 

Though  degraded yet^  nevertheless. 

3.  So  is  followed  by  as^  or  that ;  not  only^  or  not  merely^ 
is  followed  by  hut.,  hut  also.,  hut  even. 

4.  All  comparatives  require  to  be  followed  by  than^  or . 
cw,  or  because^  according  to  circumstances ;  as, 


88  CONJUNCTIONS 

"  This  man  is  stronger  than  that." 

"The  more  acceptable,  as  being  unexpected/' 

"  The  more  valuable,  hecause  unasked." 

5.  Conjunctions,  properly,  join  only  like  cases  of  nouns. 

"He  blamed  her  more  than  him,"  i.  e.^  "he  blamed  her  more 
than  he  blamed  him."  "  He  runs  faster  than  I,"  i.  «.,  "  than  I  do." 
Tt  is  erroneous  to  say,  "  The  measure  pleased  my  friend  and  /." 
It  should  be,  "my  friend  and  m^,"  i.  g.,  "pleased  my  friend,  and 
pleased  me." 

6.  Conjunctions  do  not  properly  connect  different  parts 
of  speech  ;  as,  "  Men  sincerely  loving  their  fellow-creatures, 
and  who  hate  oppression,  will,"  &q.  "  Who  hat^'^  should 
be  changed  to  hating. 

In  like  manner,  an  adverb  and  an  adjective  should  not  be  con- 
nected by  a  conjunction,  though  poets  sometimes  disregard  this 
rule. 

v.  But  and  lest  are  often  used  improperly  for  that ;  as, 
"  I  cannot  deny  hut  he  is  eloquent."  "  I  feared  lest  I  should 
be  late."     That  is  the  proper  word. 

8.  Such  should  not  be  used  in  the  place  of  50  /  the  former 
expressing  quality^  the  latter  expressing  degree, 

"I  never  saw  so  high  a  spire,"  is  correct,  denoting  degree  ot 
height;  but  "I  never  saw  such  high  a  spire,"  or  "a  spire  such 
high,"  would  give  a  confused  idea.  The  quality  is  expressed  by 
high  ;  and  so  is  the  proper  word  to  denote  the  degree. 

9.  But  is  improperly  used  for  than  in  the  following : 

"For  the  sun  is  no  sooner  risen  with  a  burning  heat,  hut  it 
withereth  the  grass."  "  This  is  none  other  hut  the  house  of  God." 
"  No  sooner  does  the  morning  dawn,  hut  this  strange  enchantment 
vanisHes." 

10.  The  conjunctive  nature  of  and^  and  the  disjunctive 
nature  of  or,  must  be  regarded  in  forming  sentences. 

The  following  sentences  from  Addison,  are  faulty :   "  A  man 


EXERCISES    ON    CONJUNCTIONS.  89 

may  see  a  metaphor  or  an  allegory  in  a  picture,  as  well  as  read 
them  in  a  description."  '^  It  must  be  confessed  that  a  lampoon  or 
a  satire  do  not  carry  in  them  robbery  or  murder."  Or^  in  both 
the  sentences,  being  disjunctive,  requires  it  for  them^  and  in  the 
latter  sentence  does  for  do. 

Exercises. 

Correct  the  following  sentences,  so  that  they  may  accord 
with  the  observations  made  above : 

We  saw  them  entering  the  gates,  and  cover  the  square.  Facts 
too  well  known  and  obvious  to  be  insisted  on.  Competition  is  ex- 
cellent, and  the  vital  principle.  Two  negatives  in  the  same  clause, 
or  referring  to  the  same  thing,  destroy  each  other.  If  the  descrip- 
tion be  general,  and  divested  of  circumstances.  Slates  are  stone, 
and  used  to  cover  roofs  of  houses.  He  was  a  man  of  taste,  and 
possessing  an  elevated  mind.  He  loved  Andrew  and  I.  This  is 
the  same  thing  with  the  other.  It  was  such  like  this.  Neither 
he  or  his  brother  used  tobacco.  He  is  not  so  hospitable  as  her. 
There  is  here  no  other  dictator  but  use.  This  book  contains  little 
else  but  a  record  of  murders.  We  find  no  more  in  its  composition 
but  the  particulars  mentioned.  The  general  bent  and  turn  of  the 
language  is  toward  the  other  form  of  expression.  I  doubt  not  but 
he  will  yet  appear  guilty.  The  terms  rich  or  poor  enter  not  into 
their  language.  I  cannot  doubt  but  that  my  friend  will  return. 
His  manners  were  neither  gross  or  excessively  refined.  No  under- 
taking is  so  great  or  difficult  which  he  cannot  accomplish.  Not 
only  his  estate,  his  reputation,  too,  has  been  impaired.  No  lan- 
guage is  so  poor  but  it  has  two  or  three  past  tenses.  I  possess  not 
that  command  of  language  as  is  desirable.  He  is  neither  very 
lively  or  forcible.  He  conversed  with  such  who  are  uncultivated. 
He  sunk  to  that  degree  of  degradation  as  to  lose  all  his  friends.  I 
have  reserved  only  such  that  pleased  me  best.  He  refused  to  use 
any  other  voice  but  his  own.  Neither  the  cold  or  the  fervid,  aro 
fitted  for  stable  friendship.  He  is  not  equally  diligent  as  his 
brother.  I  gained  such  a  son  as  all  men  called  me  happy.  Be 
ready  to  succor  such  persons  who  need  your  assistance.  The  mat- 
ter was  no  sooner  proposed,  but  he  withdrew  to  consider  it.  He 
did  it  for  no  reason,  than  to  be  applauded  by  his  flatterers. 


^ 


90  EEPETITIOK    AND   OMISSION    OF   CONJUNCTIONS. 


LESSON  XXX. 

CONJUNCTIONS. — EFFECT   OF   REPETITION   AND   OMISSION. 

1.  Many  passages  owe  their  vivacity  and  energy  to  the 
omission  or  repetition  of  conjunctions,  as  the  case  requires 

Examples. 

*^  There  is  wrath  gone  out  from  the  Lord — the  plague  is  begun." 
— Numb.  xvi.  46.  By  omitting  the  conjunction,  the  wrath  of  God 
and  the  plague  are  made  coincident — there  is  no  delay. 

*'  Thou  didst  blow  with  thy  wind — the  sea  covered  them — they 
sank  hke  lead  in  the  mighty  waters." — Exod.  xiv.  10. 

"Thou  stretchedst  out  thy  right  hand — the  earth  swallowed 
them." — Exod.  xiv.  12.  Here  is  shown  the  prompt  connection  be- 
tween cause  and  effect. 

Paul  says  of  charity:  "She  beareth  all  things,  believeth  all 
things,  hopeth  all  things,  endureth  all  things."  The  omission  of 
the  conjunction  gives  condensation  to  the  description. 

2.  The  horror  and  confusion  of  the  infernal  world  are  set 
off  to  great  advantage  by  omitting  the  conjunction  in  the 
following  passage  : 

*'  Through  many  a  dark  and  dreary  vale 
They  pass'd,  and  many  a  region  dolorous; 
O'er  many  a  frozen,  many  a  fiery  Alp, 
Rochs^  cavenj  lakes^/ens,  bogs,  dens^  and  shades  of  death — 
A  universe  of  death."  Par.  Lost.^  B.  III. 

Another  example,  expressive  of  a  concentration  of  calamity  : 

**  And  of  their  wonted  vigor  left  them  drain? d^ 
ExhaiLsted^  spiritless,  afflicted,  fallen.^''  Ibid.,  B.  III. 

The  next  example,  in  the  same  way,  by  the  absence  of  the  con- 
junction, expresses  a  concentration  of  power: 

"  Under  thee,  as  head  supreme, 
Thrones,  princedoms,  dominions,  I  reduce."       Ibid    B.  III. 


REPETITION    OF   THE   CONJUNCTION.  91 

The  desperate  energy  of  a  murderous  contest  is  thus  forcibly  ex* 
pressed  by  Byron  {Corsair^  Canto  II.): 

"One  effort,  one  to  break  the  circling  host; 
They /orm,  unite^  charge,  waver — all  is  lest  I 
Within  a  narrow  ring  com/press' d,  heset^ 
Hopeless,  not  heartless,  strive  and  struggle  yet ; 
And  now  they  fight  in  foremost  file  no  more, 
Hemmed  in,  cut  off,  cleft  down,  and  trampled  o'er." 

So  Timon,  in  giving  vent  to  bitter  and  furious  hate,  is  hurried 
on  by  the  violence  of  his  feelings,  which  causes  him  to  disregard 
those  connecting  particles  which  a  calmer  state  of  mind  and  or- 
derly arrangement  would  naturally  dictate  : 

"  Piety  and  fear, 
Keligion  to  the  gods,  peace,  justice,  truth,, 
Domestic  awe,  night-i^est,  and  neighborhood — 
Instruction,  manners,  mysteries,  and  trades. 
Degrees,  observances,  customs,  and  laws, 
Decline  to  your  confounding  contraries."      Shakspearb. 

8.  Whenever  strong  emotions — of  love,  or  hate,  or  ven- 
geance— are  struggling  for  immediate  utterance,  we  cannot 
expect  that  the  words  expressive  of  such  emotions  will  be 
clogged  with  expletives. 

Repetition  of  the  Conjunction. 

4.  When  Milton  wishes  to  exhibit  the  effect  which  sin 
had  wrought  upon  our  first  parents,  he  places  in  order  the 
different  passions  that  had  been  engendered  in  their  breasts, 
and  exhibits  them  in  a  series,  unit  by  unit : 

"Love  was  not  in  their  looks,  either  to  God 
Or  to  each  other,  but  apparent  guilt. 
And  shame,  and  perturbation,  and  despair, 
Anger,  and  obstinacy,  and  hate,  and  guile." 

Again,  when  the  poet,  in  that  sublime  hymn  to  light,  speaks  of 
the  different  objects  from  which  he  had  been  cut  off  by  blindness,, 
those  objects  seem  multiplied  by  the  interposition  of  the  particle 
or,  and  a  lingering  sorrow  is  attached  to  the  consciousness  of  each 
individual  privation : 


92  REPETI'nON    OF   THE   CONJUNCTION. 

"  Thus  with  the  year 
Seasons  return,  but  not  to  me  returns 
Day,  or  the  sweet  approach  of  even  or  mom, 
Or  sight  of  vernal  bloom,  or  summer's  rose, 
Or  flocks,  or  herds,  or  human  face  divine."     B.  II. 

Another  example :  "  They  brought  beds,  and  basins,  and  earthen 
vessels,  and  wheat,  and  barley,  and  flour,  and  parched  corn,  anA 
beans,  and  lentils,  and  parched  pulse,  and  honey,  and  butter,  and 
slieep,  and  cheese  of  kine,  for  David,  and  for  the  people  that  were 
with  hiin." — 2  Samuel^  xvii. 

What  a  profusion  of  necessaries  <lo  these  thirteen  conjunctions 
scatter  over  the  camp  of  David  ! 

5.  Take,  again,  the  following  passage,  and  see  how  beau- 
tifully the  article  and  the  conjunction  are  interwoven  with 
the  narrative,  and  how  forcibly  they  depict,  under  various 
aspects,  the  loveliness  of  the  promised  land  : 

"For  the  Lord  thy  God  bringeth  thee  into  a  good  land,  a  land  of  brooks 
of  water,  of  fountains  and  depths  that  spring  out  of  the  valleys  and  hills ; 
a  land  of  wheat,  and  barley,  and  vines,  and  fig-trees,  and  pomegranates  ; 
a  land  of  oil-olive,  and  honey." — Deut.  viii.  7. 

6.  The  attention  and  kindness  shown  by  the  good  Sa- 
maritan towards  the  wounded  traveller,  are  set  forth  to 
the  greatest  advantage  by  the  repetition  of  the  conjunction 
before  each  member  of  the  sentence.  His  good  offices  seem 
multiplied  in  every  direction.  Humanity,  like  a  guardian 
angel,  seems  to  flutter  over  the  wounded  man  with  an 
officious  kindness : 

"But  a  certain  Samaritan,  as  he  journeyed,  came  where  he  was,  and 
when  he  saw  him  he  had  compassion  on  him,  and  went  to  him,  and  bound 
uj)  his  wounds,  pouring  in  oil  and  wine,  and  set  him  on  his  own  beast, 
and  brought  him  to  an  inn,  and  took  care  of  him.  And  on  the  morrow 
when  he  departed,  he  took  out  two  pence,  and  gave  them  to  the  host,  and 
said  unto  him.  Take  care  of  him ;  and  whatsoever  thou  spendest  more, 
when  I  come  again,  I  will  repay  thee. — Luke^  x.  33-35. 

[NoTR. — The  above  interesting  lesson  has  been  drawn  from  "  Harrison  on  t)ic 
Eii-rli'li  Language."] 


INTERJECTIOxNS.  93 

LESSON  XXXI. 

INTERJECTIONS. 

1.  These  are  words  or  phrases  thrown  into  various  parts 
of  a  sentence,  to  express  certain  strong  emotions ;  they  do 
not  form  a  constituent  and  necessary  part  of  the  sentence ; 
as,  "  Oh  !  I  have  wounded  my  father."  "  O  virtue !  how 
disregarded  thou  hast  been !" 

2.  It  is  to  be  observed,  in  writing,  that  the  interjections 
O I  Oh  !  and  Ah!  require  after  them  the  objective  case  of 
a  pronoun  of  the  first  person,  when  in  the  singular  number  ; 
but  the  nominative  case  of  a  pkiral  pronoun  of  the  first 
person,  and  the  nominative  case  of  pronouns  in  the  second 
pei*son,  whether  singular  or  plural.  "  Ah,  me  /"  ''  O  thou, 
my  friend  !"  &c.  "  Oh,  ye  hypocrites !"  The  nouns  or  pro- 
nouns in  the  third  person,  following  an  interjection,  are  in 
the  nominative  absolute. 

3.  The  interjection,  or  interjection al  phrase,  may  stand 
at  the  beginning,  or  in  the  midst,  or  at  the  end  of  a  sen- 
tence ;  it  does  not  affect  the  structure  of  it. 

4.  Such  words  as  "Farewell,"  "Adieu,"  "Welcome," 
&c.,  are  to  be  regarded  (as  Harrison  observes)  as  elliptical 
forms  of  speech  rather  than  interjections;  as.  Farewell! 
"  May  you  fare  well."  Adieu  !  d  JDieu  !  "  To  God ;"  "  I 
commend  you  to  God."  Good-bye  or  good-hy  may  be  a 
a  contraction  and  corruption  of  "  God  be  with  you !" 
Welcome  !  "  well  (or  opportunely^  come  !"  "  Woe  is 
vie  /"  means,  "  Woe  is  to  m^." 

EXBRCISES. 

Correct  the  following : 

Oh  1 1     Ah  us  !     Oh  thee !     Woe  is  I !     Ah  us  hypocrites  I 


94  PRIMITIVE   AND   DERIVATIVE   WORDS. 


LESSON   XXXII. 

PRIMITIVE   AND   DERIVATIVE   WORDS. 

Etymology  in  its  largest  and  most  correct  signification 
(says  Neil,  from  whom  this  section  is  copied),  means  a 
knowledge  of  the  way  in  which  words  are  formed  from 
each  other,  and  is  equivalent  to  the  German  expression, 
word-building. 

The  word  from  which  another  is  formed  is  called  its  root. 
Those  syllables  which  are  placed  before  the  root  are  called  pre- 
fixes ;  those  placed  after  it,  affixes. 

Root- words  are  q>2^q^ 'primitwes  ;  formed  words,  derivatives. 

Primitives  are  self-significant  words.  Derivatives  are  formed  of 
one  self-significant  word,  and  some  addition  which  modifies  its 
meaning. 

The  root-words  of  any  language  are  few  and  easily  acquired; 
the  derivatives  are  very  numerous,  but  as  they  all  have  meanings 
alcin  to  that  or  those  of  their  primitives,  they  are  easily  under- 
stood, even  when  not  remembered  or  formerly  known. 

The  words  which  are  formed  by  the  combination  of  two  or 
more  self-significant  words  are,  for  the  most  part,  derived  from 
the  Anglo-Saxon,  and  form  the  groundwork  of  our  common 
speech.  Almost  any  two  of  these  may  be  united  to  form  a  name 
expressive  of  any  thing  which  combines  in  itself  the  ideas  impfied 
in  the  primaries ;  e.  g.^  moon-light,  corn-field,  ear-ache,  hail-storm, 

Anglo-Saxon  primitives  are^  for  the  most  part,,  words  of  one 
syllable,,  and  denote — 

1st.  Oljects  of  sense ^  or  sensible  qualities  ;  e.  g.,  boy,  cold,  dale,  darkness, 
earth,  fire,  frost,  hail,  hill,  land,  light,  moon,  rain,  sea,  sky,  sleet,  snow, 
fitar,  stream,  sun,  thunder,  wood,  water,  &c. 

2d.  The  several  relations  of  life;  e.  g.,  brother,  child,  daughter,  fathei, 
friend,  husband,  kin,  mother,  sister,  son,  wife,  &c. 

3d.  Home  oljects  ;  e.  g.,  board,  home,  house,  hearth,  roof,  fireside,  seat,  &c. 

4th.  Common  business  matters;  e.  g.,  bake,  brew,  beg,  buy,  craft,  cheap- 
en, hack,  mow,  moil,  reap,  shear,  shop,  sow,  thresh,  toil,  touch,  traflic, 
trick,  truck,  weave,  wed,  work.  • 

5th.  Nam,es  of  common  tilings  ;  e.  g.,  l^read,  brick,  cloth,  nflass,  jsrold,  iro?>, 


ANGLO-SAXON    PKIMITIVES.  95 

lead,  leather,  stone,  slate,  silver,  wood;  barn,  barley,  corn,  field,  farm, 
flock,  grass,  hay,  hook,  meadow,  oats,  plough,  rye,  rake,  sail,  spade,  ship, 
straw,  scythe,  wheat ;  bud,  bark,  branch,  fruit,  leaf,  root,  seed,  stem,  stalk, 
thorn ;  ash,  beech,  birch,  box,  elm,  fir,  holm,  lime,  oak,  plane  ;  bat,  bull, 
oow,  cat,  deer,  dog,  fox,  hare,  hen,  hog,  kite,  mouse,  mole,  pig,  rat,  toad, 
weasel,  &c. 

6th.  Times  and  seasons;  e.  ^.,  summer,  spring,  harvest,  winter;  da^, 
week,  month,  year,  yore,  night,  morn,  noon,  evening. 

7th.  Gammon  feelings  and  their  manifestations  ;  e.  g.^  blush,  fear,  glad- 
ness, glee,  groan,  laugh,  love,  sigh,  smile,  sob,  tear,  weep,  &c. 

8th.   Common  crimes  and  faults;  e.  g.,  lie,  murder,  rob,  steal,  thieve,  &c. 

9th.  The  parts  of  the  body ;  e.g.,  arm,  brow,  back,  chin,  eye,  ear,  finger, 
foot,  hand,  leg,  lip,  mouth,  nose,  teeth,  &c. 

10th.  Particular  colors.,  sounds,  and  common  actions ;  e.  g.,  black,  blue, 
brown,  gray,  green,  pink,  red,  white,  yellow;  bark,  buzz,  chirp,  creak, 
clash,  clang,  growl,  grunt,  howl,  hiss,  hum,  low,  mew,  rattle,  roar,  ^ustle, 
squeak,  squeal,  whine ;  bite,  clap,  creep,  crawl,  dart,  frisk,  grii.,  gape, 
grasp,  gripe,  grab,  jink,  jerk,  jump,  kick,  leap,  nip,  quirk,  rise,  run,  rush, 
sit,  spring,  sprawl,  scamper,  skip,  skim,  scowl,  squint,  squirt,  squeeze, 
stagger,  slip,  slink,  slap,  slide,  spurn,  swim,  wink,  wriggle,  yawn. 

11th.  Satirical  or  humorous  expressions;  e.g.,  bandy,  churl,  dnib,  fiend, 
gaby,  gawky,  gaunt,  grim,  grubworm,  haggler,  jabber,  knave,  lanky,  lean, 
lazy,  leer,  mawkish,  nobby,  paltry,  sly,  sleek,  slink,  slobber,  scofi",  scrank, 
scraggy,  sulky,  scum,  shabby,  twit,  trash,  termagant,  ugly,  waspish 

(N.  B.)  Out  of  the  above  words  2000  compounds  may  be  formed. 

The  words  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  portion  of  the  English  language 
are  the  simplest,  strongest,  and  most  liomely ;  hence  their  pre- 
dominance in  any  style  secures  popularity  and  ready  Cv>mprehen- 
sion  among  the  common  people,  whose  vernacular  tongue  it  yet, 
in  a  manner,  continues.* 


*  "The  style  of  Bunyan  is  delightful  to  every  reader,  and  invaluable  a*s 
a  study  to  every  person  who  wishes  to  obtain  a  wide  command  over  the 
English  language.  The  vocabulary  is  the  vovtibulary  of  the  common  peo- 
ple. There  is  not  an  expression — if  we  except  a  few  technical  terms  of 
theology — which  would  puzzle  the  rudest  peasant.  We  have  observed 
Beveral  pages  which  do  not  contain  a  single  word  of  more  than  two  sylla- 
bles. Yet  no  writer  has  said  more  exactly  what  he  meant  to  say.  Foi 
magnificence,  for  pathos,  for  vehement  exhortation,  for  subtle  disquisition 
for  every  purpose  of  the  poet,  the  orator,  and  the  divine,  this  homely  dia- 
lect— the  dialect  of  plain  working-men — was  sufificient.  There  is  no  book 
in  our  literature  on  which  we  would  so  readily  stake  the  fame  of  the  old 
unpolluted  English  language,  no  book  which  shows  so  well  how  rich  that 
language  is  in  its  own  proper  wealth,  and  how  little  it  has  been  improved 
by  mi  tluit  it  has  borrowed." — Macavlitifs  Emiy^* 


96/  ROOT-FORMS    FROM    THE   LATIN. 

7'Tie  words  which  are  composed  of  a  self -significant  root  and  a 
modifying  addition  are^for  the  mostpart^  derived  from  the  Latin 
or  Greek  languages. 

The  following  I'ules  will  be  serviceable  in  enabling  students  to 
trace  the  words  they  intend  to  employ  to  their  Latin  root-forms ; 
viz. : 

1st.  The  Latin  terminal  syllables,  alis.,  ctus,  ctum^  gnus^  gnum^ 
idus^  ssus^  xus^  &c.,  lose  their  last  two  letters  on  being  adopted 
into  English :  as,  oriental-^'^,  effect-'ws,  edict-'wm,  benign-t^,  sign- 
um^  turbid-ws,  remiss-'W5,  prolix-i^s,  &c. 

2d.  The  Latin  terminal  <?,  if  preceded  by  a  single  consonant, 
changes  into  e;  if  preceded  by  a  double  consonant,  the  latter  con- 
sonant and  it  are  cut  off;  and  io  in  nouns  adds  n;  as,  scrib-(^)e, 
compel -?<?,  confessio-7i. 

8d.  The  Latin  terminals,  anus^  atus^  crum^  erus^  enus^  gium^ 
iliSy  inus.,  itus^  ivus^  sus^  osus^  onus^  urus^  usus^  utus^  utum^  &c., 
change  is,  mm,  wm,  us^  into  ^;  as,  inan-('ws)e,  lucr-('ww)e,  dat- 
{us)  e,  terren-(ws)  e,  sincer-('ws)  e,  refiig-(mm)  e,  flexil-(^s)  e,  divin- 
{us)  e,  activ-('ws)  e,  sens-('ws)  e,  operos-('ws)  e,  jejun-('W5)  e,  secur- 
{us)  e,  n<'-{us)  e,  acut-('Ms)  e,  statu t-(2^m)  e,  &c. 

Exceptions. — Bilis  becomes  hle^  and  osus  sometimes  ous ;  as, 
lauda-(5^7^s)  ble,  calaraito-(s)  -us. 

4th.  Ns  changes  s  into  ^,  and  ntia  becomes  ce;  as,  innocen-(«)  t, 
6cien-(^m)  ce. 


LESSON  XXXIII. 

ROOT-FORMS    RECEIVED    INTO    OUR    LANGUAGE    FROM    THE 
LATIN. 

The  following  List  (from  Neil)  furnishes  a  key  to  the 
signification  of  nearly  8000  words. 

It  is  inserted  here  for  two  purposes :  First,  that  it  may 
be  employed  in  the  acquirement  of  a  copious  store  of 
Words — by  studying  a  few  each  day,  and  repeating  the 
derivatives  from  them  orally  in  succession  ;  secondly,  in 
gaining  correctness,  ease,  and   readiness  in   spelling, — by 


ROOT-POEMS   BEOM   THE   LATIN. 


97 


writing  the  derwoitives  out,  as  the  student  best  can,  and 
then  refernng  to  a  dictionary  to  ascertain  whether  they 
have  been  rightly  set  down. 

A  large  proportion  of  the  Latin  root-forms  appear  only 
in  composition. 

The  following  list  contains  the  most  important  root-forms 
received  from  the  Latin. 

(N".  B.  The  greater  part  of  the  root-forms  hereunder 
given  have  upwards  of  twenty  derivatives.)* 

Gautio^  wariness,  -n,  us,  ly.  Pre — n. 
Gedo^  cessnm,  I  go,  -e ;  -or,  ation,  ion, 
Censeo^  I  blame,  -or,  ial,  ious,  ure, 

able. 
Oentrum,  the  middle,  -€,  al,  ic,  ipe- 

tal,  ifugal. 
Centum,  a  hundred,  -ury,  urion,  en- 

ary,  iped,  uple. 
Oerno,  1  see,  con-,  de-,  dis- 
Cerhis,  sure,  -es,  ify,  ain,  itude. 
Gito,  to  call,  -e,  er,  ation.    Mc — ant, 

in — ement. 
Cims,  a  citizen,  -c,  1,  ity,  ize. 
Vlamo,  I  shout,  -or,  ous,  ant.     Ac — 

ation. 
Glarus,  clear,  loud,  -ion,  ify,  inet. 

De — e. 
Glaudo,  clausmn,   I  shut,   -e,  tral; 

cloister,  close,  recluse,  seclude. 
GlinOy  I  bend,  -ic,  ical.   In — e,  re — e, 
Colo,  I  till,  -ny,  nial,  nize,  nist. 
Condlio,  to  unite,  -ate,  ation,  ator,  ar. 
Cor,  the  heart,  -e,  dial,  ity.   (7o;i— d, 

dis — d. 
Corona,  a  crown,  -al,  ary,  er,  ation. 
Corpus,    corporis,    the    body,    -se, 

ulence,  uscle;  -ation,  al,  eal. 
Credo,  I  believe,  -ible,  ulous,  it,  ence, 

ential. 
Creo,  I  make  of  nothing,  -ate,  ation, 

ator,  ature,  ative. 
Gresco,  cretum,  I  grow,  -endo,  ent, 

Gon—e :  increase,  rocruit,  accrue. 
Crimen,  a  charge,  -inal,  ity,  inatlon. 
Crux,  a  cross,  -cial,  cible,  cify,  cifix. 
Gumbo,  I  lie,  In— ent,  ency,  sue- 


Ago,  cuitam.,  I  lead,  do,  -ile,  ent,  en- 
cy;  -ive,  ly,  ual,  ity,  ion,  able. 
Alter,  another,  -a'»;ion,  able,  ant. 
Amo,  I  love,  -orous,  orist,  our,  iable, 

ateur,  atory. 
Ampins,  large,  -p  .  y,  ify,  itude,  eness. 
Angulns,  a  cor-^f.r,  -ar,  ly,  ity,  ate, 

ous. 
Anima,  soul,  -i.  iity,  cule,  te,  tion. 
Animw^,  mind ,  -advert,  er,  osity,  ose. 
Annws,  a  year,  -als,  ual,  uity,  iver- 

sary,  uitant. 
Antiquum,  old,  -e,  ness,  ate,  arian,  ity. 
Arma,  weapons,  -y,  ada,  ament,  ipo- 

tent,  istice. 
Ars,  ar^is,  skill,  -ful,  ly,  ness,  ifice, 

ist. 
Audio,  I  hear,  -t,  tor,  ence,  bly,  ble, 

tory. 
£revis,  short,  -ity,  iary,  iat.  Ab — iate. 
Gado,  casum,  I  fall,  -ence,  ent ;  -ual, 

uistry. 
Caedo,  cido,  mum,  fratri — e ;  circum 

— e. 
OaloT,  heat,  -id,  ity,  efy,  dron,  enture. 
Candeo,  I  am  white  like  a  flame, 

-or,  ent,  id,  ate,  le. 
Gano^  I  sing,  -tide,  tata,  to,  orous. 
Capio,  cejpi,  I  take,  -tion,  ture,  tive, 

acity,  itation.  Gon — tion,  per — tion. 
Caput,  the  head,  -ital,  tain,  e,  itulate. 
Caro,    carnis,    flesh,    -age,    al,   ity, 

ation,  ivorous. 
Gavus,  hollow,  -e,  ity,  ern. 
Causa,  origin,  -al,  ity,  a^ve,  e, 

less,  able. 


y,  a^v 


*  The  italic  letters  in  the  root-forms  are  seen  in  the  English  examples  formed  from 
them ;  e.  g.,  Agile,  agent,  agiMicy,  active.  Szc  A  dash,  thus,  Ab— iatc,  denotes  that 
the  root-form  is  to  be  inserted,  as  Ahhrein&te.  Sometimes  an  intervening  termiaa 
tion  is  to  be  added  to  the  root,  as  <7«<i^w-e-ness. 


98 


ROOT-FORMS    FROM   THE   LATIN. 


Culpa^  a  fault,  -ble,  bly,  bility. 
Cura^  care,  -e,  ate,  acy,  able,  ative, 

ator,  ions. 
Curro^  I  rnii,  -ent,  ency,  icle.     i?e-, 

inter-^  cr'/i-course. 
Danmwm^  hurt,  -ify,  ing. 
Decor^  beauty,  -ate,  ation,  ator,  ous. 
Dens   God,  -ity,  ist,  ism,  ify. 
Bensns,  thick,  -e,  ity.     Oo/i — e. 
Dens,  dentis,  a  tooth,  -al,  ist,   oid, 

alite. 
Dico,  dictum,  I  speak,  -ate,  ation, 

ator,  ion,  ary.     Ad-,  contra-,  in-, 

inter-,  jjre- 
Dign\\%,  worthy,  -ify,  ity,  itary.     In 

— ity,  ant,  ation. 
Do,  dedi,  datmxi,  I  give,  -nor,  na- 
tion ;  -e,  eless,  ive. 
Doceo,  I  teach,  -ile,  tor,  trine,  ible, 

iiment,  al,  ary. 
Doleo,  I  grieve,  -nt,  fnl,  ly,  some. 
Dominus,  a  lord,  -eer,  ical,  ant,  ate, 

ation,  ative. 
Dubiiis,  uncertain,  -oas,  ly,  ness. 
DucQ,  I  lead,  -t,  tile,  at,  al. 
Durus,  hard,  -able,  ance,  ing,  ation. 
Emo,  emptiis,  I  buy,  ex-,  per — ory, 

red — ion. 
Eo,  ^^us,  1  go,  ad-,  circu-,  ex-,  ob- 
Equw^,  just,  -al,  ity,  ize,  ation,  ian- 

gular,  aniniity,  ator. 
Ernt,  I  wander,  -or,  ant,  able,  atic. 
Externws,  outward,  -al,  ly :  estrange, 

stranger,  extreme. 
FahnXa,  a  story,  -le,  uliat,  ulous. 
FaciQs,  the  outer  part,  -ade,  ing. 
Fac\o,  I  do  or  cause,  -t,  tor,  tion,  tory. 
Bal\o,   I   deceive,   -se,   hood,   lible, 

lacious. 
Fama,  renown,  -e,  less,  ous,  ly. 
Favo,  I  befriend,  -or,  ite,  ism. 
^^ndo,  I  keep  off,  -ce,  cer,  cible,  der. 
^ero,  I  carry,  -ry,  tile,  ize,  ity. 
Festus,  a  rejoicing,  -ive,  al,  ity. 
Fidts,  faith,  -elity,  uciary. 
FigursL,  form,  -e,  al,  able,  ative. 
Finis,  end,  -ish,  al,  ite,  itiide. 
Firmus,    strong,   -ly,  ness,   anient. 

A/-,  con-,  in- 
Fixws,  stuck,  -ed,  ity,  ture. 
Flagro,  1  burn,  -ant,  ance,  ancy. 
Flamm.^,  a  blaze,  -y,  ing,  able,  eous. 
Flecto,  I  bend.     De-,  in-,  re- 
Flex'jiS,  bent,  -ile,  ure,  or,  nous. 
Flos,  ^)riB.  a  flower,  -al.  iat,  id. 


Iluo,  1  flow,  -ent,  id^  viatile. 
Forma,  shape,  -al,  ation,  nlary. 
Fortis,  strong,  -ify,  itude,  ress. 
Frango,  I  break,  -ilo,  ible,  ment,  ary, 
Frigws,  cold,  -id,  ity,  ly,  ness. 
Frons,  tlie  forehead,  -t,  let,  tal,  tier 
Fruov,  I  enjoy,  -it,  cry,  ful,  less. 
Fumws,  smoke,  -e,  igate,  y,  ous. 
Fundo,  fusum,  I  pour,  -e,  ible,  ion, 

ile. 
Gelw,  frost,  -id,  able,  atine. 
Genus,  generis,  race,  -ic,  able,  al,  ity, 

ize.     Oon-,  de — ate. 
Gero,  gestmw,  I  bear,  -und,  ent ;  -ure, 

ic,  ation. 
Gradior,  gre,<isnm.,  I  step,  -e,  ation, 

ient,  ual,  uate,  atory.     Ag-,  con-, 

dl-,  e-,  pro-,  trans- 
Gran\\m^2igrQAn,  -ulate,  ite,  ule,  ary. 
Gratia,  favor,  -eful,  ify,  is,   itude, 

uitous. 
Grex,    gregis,   a  flock,   -arious,    al, 

arian.     Ag — ate,  con — ate,  se — ate.  , 
Ilabeo,  I  have,  -it,  able,  ant,  ude, 

ation,  ual. 
Haastwin,  drawn.    Ex-,  inex — ible. 
Berba,  grass,  -age,  al,  ary,  escent, 

orize. 
Homo,  a  man,  -icide,  al,  unculus. 
Norreo,  I  am  fearful,  -id,  ible,  ent,  or. 
IlartoY,  I   encourage,  -ative,   ation, 

atory. 
Hbspes,  a  guest,  -ital,  itable,  itality. 
Ignis,  fire,  -te,  tion,  potent,  tible. 
Imago,  a  picture,  -e,  ery,  ine,  inable. 
Jac'io,  jectnm,  I  throw,  -ulate,  tila- 

tion.    Ab-,  de-,  ob-,  pro- 
Joons,  ajest,  -ose,  ular,  und,  osity. 
Judico,  I  give  sentence,  -ious,  ature, 

iary,  ial. 
Jungo,  Junctnm,  I  join,  -ion,  ure. 

^S— ive. 
Juro,  I  swear,  -y,  or.  Co?i — e,  per — y. 
Justus,  lawful,  -ice,  ify,  iciary,  ly, 

ness. 
Labor,  lapsus,  to  fall,  -ial,  ent,  or. 

Got — e,  re — e,  e — e. 
Zai^um,  to  carry.    Ab — ive,  col — ion, 

di — e. 
Xa^us,  wide,  -itude,  inarian,  ism. 
Zaxus,  open,  -ly,  ity,  ative.     He- 
Lego,  I  send,  -acy,  ate,  atine,  atee. 
Lego,  I  say,  -end,  al,  ible,  ion. 
Levo,  I  lift,  -ant,  ee,  er,  y,  ity. 
Lex,  legis,  law,  -slate,  slator,  timate. 


EOOT-FOKMS   FROM   THE   lATlN. 


99 


Idgo,  I  bind,  -ament,  ature.    Ob—e, 

re — iDn. 
Jdnea,  a  line,  -al,  ament,  age.    Out- 
Zigueo,  I  melt,  -id,  or,  efy,  idate. 
Litera^  a  letter,  -1,  ry,  ti,  ture,  lism. 
Zociis,  a  place,  -al,  alitj,  ate,  ation. 
Zonffus,  -itude,  eval.     Ob-,  pro- 
Zf'^wor,  I  speak,  -acity,  acious.    B— 

ence,  tion. 
Zuceo,  I  shine,  -ent,  id,  ifer,  iform. 
Z/iuio,  1  play,  -icrous.   JS*— e,  pre — e. 
Zwwen,  light,  -inoiis,  inary,  ination. 
Zuna,  the  moon,  -r,  cy,  ry,  tion. 
ZuHrwm,  a  cleansing,  -e,  ous,  ation. 
Zuxurisi^  carnal  pleasure,  -y,  iance, 
'-N-jate. 
Magister^  a  master,  -erial,  rate,  ery, 

racy. 
Magnus,  great,  -ify,  itude,  iloquence. 
Mando,  1  order,  -ate,  amus.     Com-, 

re- 
Manns,  the  hand,-acle,  age,  ufacture. 
Materia,  stuff,  -1,  -ism,  ize,  ity. 
Mater,  a  mother,  -nal,  nity. 
Maturus,  ripe,  -e,  ity,  ation,  ly. 
Mediws,  middle,  -ate,  ator,  um,  ocrity. 
Medeor,  I  cure,  -ical,  icine,  icable. 
Memor,  mindful,  -y,  ial,  able,  andum. 
Menda,  a  fault,  -ing,  able.    A-,  e- 
Mensura,  a  measure,  -al,  able,  ation. 
Mercor,  I  traffic,  -er,  antile,  handize. 
Mergo,  I  plunge,  -e.     £J—q,  im — e, 

sub — e. 
Mig?'o,  I  remove,  -ate,  atory.  B—ate. 
Mineo,  I  hang  over.     Z^,  pro — nee. 
Minister,  a  servant,  -ry,  rant.    Ad — 

ration. 
Minno,  I  lessen,  -iature,  ion,  ority, 

ute. 
Misceo,  I  mix,  -ible,  ellaneous.    Pro 

— uous. 
Mitto,  missum,  I  send,  -ile,  ion,  ary, 

ive.     Ad-,  com-,  re- 
Modus,  a  rule,  -e,  erate,  est,  ify. 
Moneo,  I  warn,  -ition,  itor,  ument. 

Ad — ish. 
Monstvo,  I  show,  -er,  rous,  rosity. 

De — rate. 
Mordeo,  m^orsum,  I  bite,  -el ;  -acious, 

icant.     Re-~e. 
Mors,  mortAS,  death,  -al,  gage,  ify, 

main,  uary. 
Mos,  mo>\s,  a  otistom,  -al,  ity,  ize. 
Moveo,  1  :jhange  p  ace,  -able,  ment, 

less. 


Y 


Multus,  many,  -iple,  iply,  ipotent. 
Munus,  a  gift,  -ificent.     Com — icate. 
Muto,  I  change,  -able,  ation,  iny.^ 
Natus,  born,  -ive,  ion,  al,  ity,  'so, 

ure,  al,  ist,  ism. 
Navis,  a  ship,  -y,  al,  igate. 
Necto,  nexum..     Con-,  an- 
Nego,  I  deny,  -ative,  ation.     .Z?d— 

ade. 
Noceo,  I  hurt,  -ent,  uous.     /;i— ent. 
Noraen,  nomims,  a  name,  -ative,  al, 

ation.     Ag-,  cog-,  prce- 
^ox,  noGtis,  night,  -urnal.  Equi — ial. 
JVbsco,  notum,  1  know,  -orious,  ably, 

ion.     Cog — e,  -ible. 
JVota,  a  mark,  -ry,  ble,  tion. 
Novns,  new,  -el,  ist,  t;^,  ice. 
JVuUns,  not  one,  -ify,  ity.     An- 
Numerus,  a  number,  -atioD   uble,  al. 
Nuncio,  I  tell.     An-,  e-,  de-  -ate. 
Nutrio,  I  suckle,  -ment,  tii^n,  tive. 
Octo,  eight,  -ober,  avo,  ave,  agon. 
Oculus,  the  eye,  -ist,  ar.     iSin—9V. 
Omnis,    all,    -fie,    genous,    potent, 

scient,  present. 
Opera,  a  work,  -ation,  ose,  atic. 
Opto,  I  wish,  -ion,  ative.     Ad- 
Ordo,   arrangement,  -er,   ain,  inal, 

inance. 
Orno,  1  deck,  -ate,  ly,  ament,  ally. 
Oro,  I  beseech,  -acle,  ison,  ator. 
Far,  equal.     Com — e,  fi?is— age. 
Far'io,  I  beget,  -ent,  al,  age,  turient 
Faro,  I  get  ready,  -ade.     Fre — e, 

Ap — el. 
^ars,  partis,  a  share,  -y,  ial,  ly.    De 
"Passiis,  a  step,  -age,  able,  en^er. 
Fate/;  patr'is,  -nal,  nity ;  -on,  imony, 

iot. 
Fatior,  passus,  I  suffer,  -ence,  ent ; 

ive,  ion,  ible. 
Pax,  pac'is,  peace,  -ify,  ication. 
Fel\o,  pulsus,  I  drive,  Im-,  com-,  re- ; 

im — e,  (w—Q. 
FendQo,   1  hang,  -ant,   ent,   ulum.. 

Ap-,  de-  sus- 
Fendo,  I  pay.    Ex-,  com-,  dis- 
Feniieo,  1  am  grieved,  -ent,  ly,  ial. 
Tes,  pedis,  -al,  estal,  estrian. 
Feto,  I  ask,  -ition.     Com — ence. 
Fictus,  painted,  -s,  ure,  esque,  oriaU 
Flaceo,!  please,  -id,  ly,  ness,  ity. 
Planus,  level,  -e,  ary.     Ex — ation. 
Flaudo,  plausum,  I  make  an  approv- 
ing noise,  -it;  -ible,  ive,  ly.    Ap^ 


100 


ROOT- FORMS  FROM  THE  LATIN. 


Plenw^^   full,  -ty,  teous,  tiful,  arj, 

itude. 
Pleo^   pletwm,   I    fill.      Com-,   im — 

ment,  com-,  de-,  re — ion. 
PUco,  I  fold.     Ap — able,  com — ate. 
Pondus,  joom^ms,  -able,  ous,  osity. 
Pc^nc ,  posni,  positmn,  I  put  or  place. 

De-,  com-,  ex — ent ;  ap-,  com-,  de-, 

op — ite.    De — e,  com-,  ex- 
Populus,  the  people,  -ous,  ar,  ate, 

ace. 
Porto,  I  carry,  -er,  ly,  able,  al,  age. 

Com-,  de-,  im-,  re-,  sup- 
Posse,  to  be  able,  -ession,  ible. 
Precox,  I  pray,  -atory.    Be-,  im — ate. 
Prehendo,  I  seize.     Ap-,  com-,  re- 
Presswm.,  squeezed.     Gom-,  de-,  im-, 
,    re- 
-Primws,  first,  -er,  eval,  al,  ary,  ative. 
Pi'ivus,  one's  own,  -ate,  ily,  ity,  acy. 
Probo,  I  try,  -able,  e,  ity,  ative. 
Prope,  near,  -er,  ty,  ly,  riety,  rietor. 
Proximw^,  nearest,  -ate,  ly,  ity,  o. 
Pvgnsi,  a  tight,  -acious.     Ee — ant. 
Pnlvis,  pulver'i^,  dust,  -ate,  ize,  ous. 
Purgo,   I  cleanse,  -e,  ative,  atory, 

ation. 
Purn&,  clean,  -e,  ly,  ify,  itan,  ity. 
Puto,  I  lop,  think.     Com-,  de-,  im — 

ation. 
Quisitum,  sought.  Dis-,  in-,  re — ion. 
Quies^  guietis,  -cence,  cent ;  -ly,  ism, 

ist,  ude. 
Rapio,  I  snatch,  -d,  dly,  dity,  ne,  er. 
/^ai! us,  judging,  -ional,  ly,  ize,  ist,  ity. 
Hego,  rectwm.,  I  rule,  -al,  ity,  alia, 

ency ;  -or,  ory,  itude,  angular. 
Rideo,  riswm,  I  laugh,  -icule,  iculous; 

-ible,  ibility. 
Rhus,  a  stream,  -er,  ulet,  al,  ry. 
Rogo,  I  ask.     Ab-,  ar-,  de-,  inter — 

ate. 
Ruptum,  broken,   -ure,  ion.      Ab-, 

cor-,  dis-,  inter- 
Yus,  rur'is,  the  country,  -tic,  ity ;  al. 
Jacer,  holy,  -ed,  ifice,  ilege,  ist,  an. 
Sagax,  wise,  -city,  cious,  ly,  ness. 
Salio,  I  leap,  -ly,  mon,  lent,  tant. 
Salus,  health,  -tary,  te,  tation. 
Sanctus,  pure,  -ify,  imocious,  ly. 
Sanguis,  blood,  -ne,  nary,  neous. 
<Sapio,  I  taste,  -id,  ience,  or,  osity. 
Satis,  enough,  -fy,  faction,  factory. 
Seio,  I  know,  -ence,  entific,  al,  ally. 

Con-,  pre — ence.        •    , 


Scribo,  scriptmn,  I  write,  -e,  ble ; 

-ture,  al,  ist.     Con-,  in — tion. 
Seco,  I  cut,  -t,  tile,  tary,  tion,  tor. 
Sedeo,  I  sit,  -ulous,  an,  entary. 
Sentio,  I  feel,  -ence,  lent,  entious. 
Sequor,  I  follow,  -el,  ence,  acity. 
Servio,  I  am  a  slave,  -le,  tor,  ce,  tude. 
Signnm,  a  mark,  -al,  ly,  ize,  et,  ature. 
Similis,  like,  -e,  ar,  ly,  ity,  itude. 
Sbsto,  I  stop,  -er.     Con-,  de-,  in-,  re^ 
Socio,  I  unite,  -al,  ety,  able,  ly. 
Solor,  I  comfort,  -ace.     Con — ation.  < 
Solus,  alone,  -e,  id,  ify,  itary,  itude. 
Solvo,  solutiim,  I  loose,  -ent,  ible; 

ble,  tion.    Jie — e  ;  -tion. 
Sonus,  a  tone,  -orous,  ata,  net. 
Specio,  I  see,  -es,  al,  fy,  men,  ous. 
Spiro,  I  breathe,  -it,  ual,  acle,  uous. 
Sto,  I  stand,  -ate,  ation,  and,  able. 
i:^rictus,  bound,  -ly,  ness,  ure.    Cou' 
Struo,  I  build,  -cture.    In — ct. 
Suadeo,  1  advise.     Dis-,  per- 
Tango,  tcLctum.,  I  touch,  -ent,  ible ; 

-ile,  ion,  ility. 
Tego,  tectum.^  I  cover,  -ular,  ument. 

De-,  pro- 
Tempero^  I  regulate,  -ament,  ature, 

ance. 
Tempus,   temporis,   time,   ize,   ary, 

al,  ly. 
Tendo,  I  stretch.     At-,  ex-,  in-,  pre- 
Teneo,  I   hold,  -able,   acious,   ant, 

dril. 
TVmmus,  a  limit,  -al,  ate,  ist,  ology. 
5e/Ta,  the  earth,  -ene,  itory,  estrial. 
Testis,  a  witness,  -ament,  ator,  ify. 
Textus,  woven,  -ile,  ual,  ure. 
Tortum,  twisted,  -ure,  ive,  ile,  uous. 
Tractus,  drawn.     At-,  con-,  de-,  ex- 
Tumeo,  I  swell,  -id,  or,  ular,  ult. 
Turba,  a  crowd,  -id,  ulent.    Fer- 
Umbi'SL,  a  shade,  -age,  ate,  ella. 
Unddi,  a  wave,  -ulate,  ulary,  ulation. 
Vaco,  I  am  empty,  -ant,  ate,  uity. 
Valeo,  I  am  strong,  -id,  ant,  or,  ue. 
Vapor,  steam,  -ish,  ize,  ous,  y. 
Veho,  vex'i,  vectum,   I    carry,   -icle, 

ement ;  -ation,  atious.     In-,  trans 

— ive. 
Vendo,  I  sell,  -ee,  or,  ible,  ition. 
Vemo,  I  send,  -ture,  ous,  some. 
Verbuva,  a  word,  -al,  atim,  iage. 
Vergo,  1  tend.     Con^,  di — ence.      x,,^^^ 
Verto,  'versum,  I  turn,  -ical,  ex,  igo; 

-ify,  icle,  ion. 


TVs 


ROOT-FORMS    FROM   THE   GREEK, 


101 


Vevna^  true,  -ify,  ity,  ily,  diet. 
Video^  vismn^  I  see,  -ible,  ion,  itant. 

Dh-^pro-,  € — nt. 
Vinco^  victum,  1  conquer,  -ible ;  -or, 

y,  ious.     In — ible. 
Vindex,  vindicis^  -tive,  ate,  able. 
Vivo,  1  live,  -id,  ify,  acions,  iparons. 


Vooo,  I  call,  -al,  ation,  able,  iferate. 
Volo,  I  will,  -ition,  untary,  itive. 
Volvo,  'voluium.,  I  roll,  -me,  te.    Cofh-^ 

in-,  re — e ;  re — tion. 
Voro,  I  eat,  -acity.     Carni — ous. 
Votxxm,  a  promise,  -e,  ive,  ary,  er. 
VulgSi-n^,  common,  -ate.     Vi — er.  ^ 


Of  the  Words  adopted  from  the  Greeks  by  far  the  larger 
proportion  are  strictly  scientific.  Although  they  are  sel- 
dom required  in  the  vocabulary  of  the  public  speaker  oi 
orator,  it  may  be  useful  to  notice  a  few  of  the  more  im- 
portant. 

1.  ArcJ^e,  beginning,  rule,   government,   chieftaincy,   -iasm,   ives,   on, 

bishop,  ric  (episcopos,  an  overseer),  itect,  ure  (technao,  I  build), 
itrave  (trabs,  a  beam),  ipelago  (pelagos,  the  sea),  etype,  ical  (typos, 
a  form). 

2.  Chronos,  time,  -ic,  ical,  icle.     Ana — ism,  iso — ous,  s^n — ism. 

3.  Cosmos,  the  world,  -ical,  etic,  ogony,  opolite,  orama. 

4.  Cr/rtcos,  discerning,  -ic,  ical,  icism,  erion,  ique. 

5.  Cyclop,  a  circle,  -e,  oid,  ades,  -(ops,  the  eye)  pedia  (paideia,  teaching). 

6.  Ge,  the  earth,  -ocentric  (centron,  the  mid  part),  odefy  (daio,  I  divide), 

oponics  (ponos,  labor),  ometry  (metron,  a  measu/e),  orgic  (ergon,  a 
work).     Apo — e,  epi — q,  peri — e. 

7.  Genao,  I  produce,  -esis.    {Beteros,  other) — eous,  Q.omo%,  similar) — eous, 

{hydor,  water)ro-,  {nitron)-,  {oxys,  acid)-. 

8.  Gonia,  a  corner,  (treis,  three) — ometry,  {tetra,  four)-,  (pente,  five)a-, 

{hex,  six)a-,  {hepta,  seven)-,  {octo,  eight)a-,  {polys,  many)-,  {dia, 
through) — al. 

9.  Gramma,  a  letter,  -r,  tical.     Ghrono?.  (2)-,  ana-,  dia-,  epi-. 

10.  Grapho,  I  write,  -ic,  ite.    {Autos,  self)-,  epi-,  para-,  tele-,  mono-;  {bihlion, 

a  book)-,  {bios,  life)-,  {calos,  beautiful)!— y.  Ge  (6)  o — y,  {lexicon^  a 
book) — y,  {stenos,  narrow) — y,  {topos,  a  place) — y. 

11.  Logos,  a  word,  a  discourse,  -ical,  iciar.,  ic,  -{aritlimos,  a  number) 

-o{mache,  a  fight)y.  Apo — y,  eu — y,  .oyl — ism,  ize,  ist,  ic,  {aer,  air)- 
o — y,  {anthos,  a  flower) — y,  {astron,  h  star) — y,  {chronos,  2) — y,  (my- 
thos,  a  fable) — y,  {zoow,  an  animal) — y. 

12.  Monos,  one,  -ad,  arch  (1),  k,  astic,  as'^ery,  opoly  (poleo,  I  sell). 

13.  Ode,  a  poem.     Ep-,  epis-,  palin-. 

14.  Pan,  all,  -ic,  acea,  dect,  oply,  -{demos,  the  people)-ic,  {creas,  flesh). 

15.  Pathos,  feeling,  -etic,  ology  (11),  ^-{gnomon,  an  indej)-ic.     A-,  synii-^ 

anti-,  {anthropos,  a  man) — y. 

16.  Philos,  a  friend,  {sophia,  wisdom)~y,  -{melos,  a  song),  -logist  (11). 

17.  Phone,  a  sound,  -ics,  etics,  ography  (10).    Anti-,  «-,  €U;  sym — y, 
IS.  Polis,  a  city,  -cy,  tic,  ty,  ce.     Cosmo  (3) — te,  metro--^ 


102  SAXON,   LATIN,   AND   GREEK   PREFIXES. 

19.  Scjpeo,  (anemos,  the  wind)-,  {Jielios,  the  sun)-,  (micros^  small)-,  tel^o^ 

far)-,  [stereos,  solid)-. 

20.  Sophia,  wisdom,  -sm,  sts,  stry,  sticate.     {Gymno^^  naked)— sts. 

21.  Strophe^  a  turning.      Anti-^  apo-^  cata-^  epi-. 

22.  Thesis,  a  position.      Anti-,  tpi-,  hypo-^  paren-,  syn-. 

23.  Theos,  God,  -ology  (11),  o-{cratos,  power)-ic.     Mono-,  poly-,  o— ism. 

24.  Tonos,  a  sound,  -e,  ic.     Dia-,  mono-,  (barys,  heavy)-,  semi — e, 

25.  Typos,  a  form,  -e,  ocosmy  (3),  ical,  ify.     Anti-,  stereo — e. 

The  above  list,  if  carefully  studied,  will  assist  in  the  explanation  of  up 
wards  of  1000  words.  It  would  greatly  tend  to  the  improvement  of  the 
student  if  he  would — 1st.  Write  out  in  full  the  several  words.  2d.  Make 
himself  acquainted  with  their  meaning.  3d.  Pursue  a  course  of  defi- 
nition, judgment,  and  reasoning. 

The  root-forms  of  words  having  been  now  elaborately- 
explained,  and  their  uses  exemplified,  it  remains  that  we 
should  bestow  a  little  attention  on  those  modifying  parti- 
cles on  which  the  nicer  shades  of  meaning  so  much  depend. 
They  are  either  prefixes  or  affixes.  They  are  of  three 
kinds,  Saxon,  Latin,  and  Greek. 

Saxon  Prefixes. — A,  on,  in,  to,  at;  he,  em,  im,  to  make;  en,  in,  on; 
fore,  preceding ;  mis,  ill,  wrong ;  out,  beyond ;  over,  high,  ahead ;  un,  ne- 
gation ;  under,  below ;  with,  from,  against:  e.  g. — Aboard,  hecsXm,  embody, 
empurple,  €?2-danger,  /o/'^bode,  ?7^^slead,  ow^law,  overshoot,  ■w;ilink,  under- 
mine,  withhold. 

Latin  Prefixes. — A,  db,  abs,  from,  away  ;  ad  (d  may  be  changed  into  c, 
f,  g,  I,  n,  p,  8,  r,  and  t),  to ;  am,  circum,  round ;  ante,  pre,  before  ;  con  (n 
changes  to  g,  I,  m,  r),  together,  with ;  contra,  counter,  against ;  de,  down  ; 
dis,  se,  oflf,  apart ;  ex,  extra  (x  into  c  and/),  out,  without ;  in  (n  into  I,  m,  r), 
to,  on,  in  verbs — in  adjectives,  not ;  inter,  intro,  between,  among,  within  ; 
ob  (b  into  c,/,  p),  against ;  per,  through  ;  pod,  after ;  preter,  ultra,  beyond; 
pro,  for,  forth ;  re,  retro,  back,  anew ;  sub  (b  into  c,  f,  g,  p\  under ;  super, 
supra,  SUV,  above  ;  trans,  across ;  as,  ^^stract,  ac/join,  amputate,  circumnavi- 
gate, antedate,  contract,  contradict,  countermand,  de'^end,  disperse,  secede, 
extinct,  extraYagant,  inject,  mtact,  intersect,  introduce,  object,  perforate, 
postfix,  preternatural,  ultramarine,  produce,  reduce,  retrograde,  subscribe, 
supervise,  transfer. 

Greek  Prefixes. — A,  an,  without ;  amphi,  both,  round ;  an^,  through, 
again ;  anti,  a^inst;  apo,  from,  away;  cata,  down  ;  dia,  through ;  en,  em,  in, 
511 ;  epi,  upon ;  hyper,  above ;  hypo,  under ;  meta,  change ;  para,  beside ; 
pei'i,  round ;  syn  {n  into  I,  m),  with ;  as,  aTiarchy,  amphihious,  analogy^ 
intidote,  apostate,  catastrophe,  dialect,  eTidemic,  epigram,  hyperhole,  hypo- 
^esis,  metaphor,  ;?amble,  period,  synthesis. 


SAXON,    LATIN,    AND    GREEK    AFFIXES.  103 

The  affixes  cannot  be  so  distinctly  arranged  according  to 
the  language  from  which  they  are  taken.  We  therefore 
present  tliem  in  that  order  in  which  they  may  be  most  suc- 
cinctly and  profitably  exhibited : — 

Acy^  ace,  age,  ance.  ancy,  dor,  ence,  ency,  head,  liood,  ion,  on,  ism,  ment^ 
many,  ness,  vie,  ry,  ship,  t,  th,  tude,  ty,  ity,  ure,  y,  and  wick,  when  added 
io  nouns,  verbs,  or  adjectives  denote  being  or  state. 

A /I,  ant,  ard,  art,  ary,  eer,  ent,  er,  ier,  ist,  ive,  or  ster,  added  to  nouns 
or  verbs  denote  the  doer  of  an  act. 

Ate,  ee,  ite,  added  to  nouns  and  verbs,  denote  passivity,  i.  e.,  being 
acted  on. 

Gule,  cle,  ule,  el,  il,  et,  let,  in,  ine,  kin^  ling,  ock,  denote  smalUiess. 

Ac,  al,  an,  ar,  ary,  en,  ic  or  ical,  id,  ile,  ine,  ory,  added  to  nouns  denote 
made  of,  belonging  to,  &c. 

Aie.,  ful,  ous,  ose,  some,  y,  added  to  nouns  denote  plenty, 

Ish,  nice,  and  ly,  added  to  nouns,  denote  resemblance. 

Ive  added  to  nouns  and  verbs  denotes  active  capacity. 

Able,  ible,  vhU,  to  nouns  and  verbs  denote  passive  capacity. 

Ate,  en,  fy,  ish,  ise  or  ize,  to  nouns  and  adjectives  denote  to  make. 

Separable  and  separate  root-forms  are  for  the  most  part 
Saxon ;  inseparable  ones,  Latin,  Greek,  or  French. 

It  may  be  useful  to  parties  who  have  learnt  French,  or 
who  intend  to  learn  it,  to  remark — 1st,  That  the  greater 
part  of  the  words  ending  in  able.,  age.,  al.,  ant.,  ance.,  en% 
ence.,  ible.,  ice.,  ion.,  giie^  ude.,  <fec.,  are  spelled  alike  in  Eng- 
lish and  French;  2d,  That  in  the  majority  of  cases  English 
words  in  al.,  an.,  ary.,  cy.,  er.,  ic,  ical.,  id.,  ive^  ory.,  or.,  ous.,  ty., 
ular.,  2/,  may  be  turned  into  French  by  the  change  of  these 
syllables  into  ely  en.,  aire.,  ce,  re,  ique.,  ide^  if  feminine ;  if 
masculine,  oire.,  eur.,  eux.,  te.,  ulier.,  ie, — and  vice  versd. 

What  lias  now  been  said  upon  Etymology,  if  thoroughly  studied 
and  regularly  practised,  will  add  greatly  to  the  talk-stock  of  the 
learner,  and  aid  in  the  acquirement  of  that  copiousness,  readiness, 
and  fluency  which  in  writing,  but  especially  in  speaking,  is  desir- 
able. Truly  has  a  great  modern  writer  said,  "  In  a  language  like 
ours,  where  so  many  words  are  derived  from  othfer  languages, 
there  are  few  modes  of  instruction  more  useful  or  more  amusing 
than  that  of  accustoming  young  people  to  seek  for  the  etymology 
or  primary  meaning  of  the  words  they  use.     There  are  cases  in 


104  SPELLING    OF   DERIVATIVE   WORDS. 

which  knowledge  of  more  value  may  be  conveyed  by  the  history 
of  a  word  than  by  the  history  of  a  campaign." 

Words  are  valuable,  at  least,  chiefly  for  the  ideas  they  repre- 
sent. In  and  of  themselves,  they  have  a  value,  it  is  true;  but,  as 
the  representatives  of  thought,  their  worth  is  more  than  a  thou- 
sand-fold increased. 


LESSON  XXXIV. 

SPELLrNG    OF   DERIVATIVE   AND    COMPOUND   WORDS. 

The  subjoined  Rules  are  not  a  complete  guide,  even  for 
derivative  words ;  as  there  are  frequent  departures  from  the 
Rules,  which  can  be  ascertained  only  by  extensive  reading 
and  careful  observation.  The  practice  of  frequently  trans- 
cribing from  good  editions  of  standard  authors,  and  also  of 
noticing^  when  reading,  the  manner  in  which  words  are 
spelled^  cannot  be  too  highly  recommended  as  a  means  of 
securing  accuracy  in  this  necessary  part  of  good  English 
composition. 

It  would  be  found  a  very  useful  exercise,  for  this  pur- 
pose, and  also  for  the  purpose  of  securing  a  knowledge  of 
the  meaning  and  derivation  of  words,  and  thus  a  command 
of  language  in  writing,  to  devote  some  time  each  day  to  the 
careful  perusal  of  two  or  three  pages  of  the  Unabridged 
Dictionary  of  Webster,  or  Worcester. 

RuLHi  I. — Monosyllables — and  words  of  more  than  one  syllable 
accented  on  the  last  syllable — ending  in  a  single  consonant  pre- 
ceded by  a  single  vowel,  double  the  final  consonant  on  receiving  a 
new  syllable  beginning  with  a  vowel ;  but  z  and  ^are  not  doubled. 
Examples — begin,  begin-ner;  befit,  befit-ting;  rob,  rob-ber ;  ad- 
mit, admit-tance;  wit,  wit-ty. 

BuLE  II. — Silent  e  at  the  end  of  a  word  which  receives  an  addi- 
tional syllable  beginning  with  a  consonant^  is  generally  retained  ; 


DERIVATIVE    AND    COMPOUND    WORDS.  105 

as,  gnile-less ;  peace-ful ;  servile-ly.  Exceptions — aw(^)-ful,  iYVi{ey 
]j,  abndg(6)-ment,  nurs(e)-ling,  whol(e)-ly,  du(e)-ly,  acknowl- 
edg(6)-ment,  argu(6)-ment,  judg(6)-ment.  In  these  the  final  e  is 
dropped. 

EuLE  III. — In  words  ending  with  a  silent  €,  if  the  syllable  added 
commence  with  a  vowel,  the  silent  e  is  to  be  omitted ;  as,  ad- 
mir(^)-able,  cav(^)-ity,  cur(6)-ative,  driv(e)-ing ;  but 

(1)  If  silent  e  is  preceded  by  c  or  g  soft,  or  t;,  it  is  retained  before  able  ; 
as,  peace-able,  change-able,  move-able. 

(2)  If  silent  e  is  preceded  by  g  soft,  it  is  retained  before  ous ;  as,  ad- 
vantage-ous  ;  but  if  c  soft  precedes  it,  e  is  changed  into  i  before  ous  ;  as, 
grac(«)-^o^s,  &c. 

(3)  Verbs  ending  in  ee  and  oe  retain  the  e ;  as,  see-ing ;  IxOe,  hoe-ing.  So 
also,  certain  words  that  would  otherwise  be  ambiguous ;  as,  dye-ing, 
singe-ing,  twinge-ing. 

(4)  Words  ending  in  ie  drop  this  final  «,  and  change  i  into  y,  before  an 
additional  syllable  that  begins  with  i ;  as,  lie,  ly-ing. 

Rule  IY. — Words  ending  in  y^  preceded  by  a  consonant,  on 
taking  any  affix  except  ing^  or  ish^  or  '«,  change  y  into  i\  as, 
happy,  happ(y)i-ness  ;  cry,  cr(y)^-ed  ;  marry,  ma^r(y)^-age  ;  pity, 
pit(y)*-less,  &c.  Exceptions — The  y  is  not  changed  in  words  de- 
rived from  dry^  slcy^  sly. 

Words  ending  in  y,  preceded  by  a  vowel,  do  not  change  y  into  i  before 
an  additional  letter  or  syllable  ;  as,  tray,  trays  ;  bay,  bays  ;  joy,  joyful.  So 
the  y  is  unchanged  when  ing  is  added  to  any  words  ending  in  y ;  as  edify, 
edify-ing ;  buy,  buy-ing.  Exceptions — Day,  daily  ;  pay,  paid ;  lay,  laid ; 
say,  said  ;  say,  saith. 

Rule  Y. — Words  ending  in  a  double  consonant — except  I — re- 
tain both  consonants  when  they  take  an  additional  syllable,  not 
beginning  with  the  same  letter;  as,  odd,  odd-ity ;  distress,  dis- 
tress-ful ;  skill,  skil-ful.  Words  ending  with  a,  <?,  or  u^  retain 
these  letters  ;  as,  woo,  woo-er  ;  echo,  echo-ing. 

Words  ending  with  a  double  letter,  retain  both  when  a  prefix  of  a  word 
f  or  syllable  is  connected ;  as,  roll,  unroll ;  see,  fore-see ;  water-fall.     -Ec- 
ceptions—di\^t\\  instil,  fulfil,  until,  withal,  wherewithal,  already. 

RtJLE  YI. — Compounds  of  self-significant  words  generally  retain 
the  spelling  of  those  words;  as.  steam-engine;  book-binder. 


106  EXEECISES   ON   DERIVATIVE   WORDS. 


Exercises. 

Write  derivatives,  according  to  the  Rules,  from  tno 
words  here  given.  Example — Like,  hked,  liking,  likely, 
likelihood.     Yalley,  valleys. 

Attorney,  body,  glory,  weary,  delay,  stay,  name,  care,  grace,  in 
cite,  encourage,  tame,  manage,  run,  defer,  brag,  admit,  mud,  ao 
quit.,  red,  control,  swim,  whiz,  idle,  rude,  abridge,  awe,  pity, 
mercy,  provoke,  merry,  giddy,  lucky,  just,  shy,  dry,  true,  betray, 
boy,  destroy,  verify,  edify,  occupy,  multiply,  day,  entrap,  unman, 
allot,  aver,  fret,  bar,  rag,  ^tab,  join,  marvel. 

Worship,  steam,  reason,  suffer,  chill,  obstruct,  harass,  excuse, 
due,  life,  engage,  close,  expire,  face,  fate,  office,  inflame,  v^hole, 
false,  feeble,  meddle,  remorse,  holy,  ruby,  forgive,  come,  entire, 
body,  speedy,  vary,  weary,  dropsy,  merry,  annoy,  chimney,  flee, 
hnzza,  money,  dismiss,  still,  full,  v^ill,  stuflt",  renew,  avow,  forego. 


LESSON  XXXV. 

ABBREVIATIONS. 


In  writing,  it  is  convenient  and  proper,  sometimes,  to  use 
abbreviated  forms  of  expression,  a  selection  from  which  is 
here  given.  The  pupil  should  copy  them,  or,  what  is  bet- 
ter, write  them,  upon  hearing  the  full  form  dictated. 


A,  B.^  or  B.  A.,  Bachelor  of  Arts. 

Ans.,  Answer. 

Adv.^  Adverb. 

Acct.^  Acconnt. 

d.  6'.,  Ante  Christum  (before  Christ). 

A.  I).^  Anno  Domini  (in  the  year  of 

our  Lord). 
A  M.,  Ante  Meridiem  (before  noon) ; 

in  the  year  of  the  wcrld. 
Adm.^  Admiral. 
Anon.^  Anonymous. 
M..  Aged. 


Ang.^  August. 
Arlc.^  Arkansas. 
Ala.^  Alabama. 
Adj.^  Adjective. 
Ahp.^  Archbishop. 
Aai.^  Adjutant. 
Admr.^  Administrator. 
Anat.^  Anatomy, 
Apr.^  April. 
Amt.^  Amount. 
Att.^  Attorney. 
Bll.^  Barrel. 


ABBREVIATIONS. 


107 


B.  i).,  Bachelor  of  Divinity. 
Bart.^  Baronet. 

B.  6\,  Before  Christ. 
Bot.^  Botany. 

Bal.,  Balance. 
Benj.^  Benjamin. 
Bp^^  Bishop. 
^.,  Book,  Bank. 
G.  or  cent.^  A  hundred. 
Gal.^  Calendar,  California.  ' 
Cant.,  Canticles  (Solomon's  Song). 
Gcip.j  Capital. 
C5i«A.,  Cashier. 
a  IF.,  Canada  West. 
Capt.^  Captain. 
Col.,  Colonel. 
Chas.,  Charles. 
Caps.,  Capitals. 

C.  B.,  Canada  East. 
Ck,  Church. 

Ban.,  Danish,  Daniel. 

D.  D.,  Doctor  of  Divinity. 
Dec,  December. 

Dept.,  Department,  Deputy. 
Diet.,  Dictionary,  Dictator. 
Bi'.,  Debtor,  Doctor. 

D.  C,  District  of  Columbia. 
Bea.,  Deacon. 

Beg.,  Degree. 

Deut.,  Deuteronomy. 

B(jz.,  Dozen. 

Bed.,  Ecclesiastes. 

B.  G.,  For  example. 

Encyc,  Encyclopedia. 

Bng.,  England,  English. 

Eph.,  Ephesians. 

Esq.,  Esquire. 

Bx.,  Example,  Exception,  Exodus. 

Ed.,  Edition,  Editor. 

E.  /.,  East  Indies. 

B.  N.  E.,  East-Northeast. 
Ep.,  Epistle. 

E.  S.  E.,  East-Southeast. 
Etc.,  And  so  forth. 
Eah.,  Fahrenheit. 
Fern.,  Feminine. 

Flor.  or  Fa.,  Florida. 

F.S.A.,  Fellow  of  the  Society  of  Arts. 

Far.,  Furlong. 

Feb.,  February. 

Fig.,  Figure. 

F.  R.  S.,  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society. 
Ft.,  Feet,  Foot,  Fort. 

Ga.,  Georgia. 
GaU.,  Gallon. 


Gent.,  Gentleman. 

Geol.,  Geology. 

Ger.,  German. 

Gal.,  Galatians. 

Ggrt.,  Genesis,  General. 

Geo.,  George,  Georgia. 

Geom.,  Geometry. 

Gov.,  Governor. 

Beb.,  Hebrews. 

Bon.,  Honorable. 

B/id.,  Hogshead. 

Bund.,  Hundred. 

la.,  Indiana. 

Id.,  The  same. 

/.  B.  S.  (Jesus  Ilominum  Salvatcr)^ 

Jesus  the  Saviour  of  men. 
Incog.,  Unknown. 
Ind.,  Indiana. 
Int.,  Interest. 
Isa.,  Isaiah. 

lb.  or  Ibid.,  In  the  same  place. 
/.  e.,  that  is. 
111.,  Illinois. 
In.,  Inch. 

Inst.,  Instant,  the  present  month. 
lo.,  Iowa. 
Jas.,  James. 
Jno.,  John. 
Jos.,  Joseph. 

J.  P.,  Justice  of  the  Peace. 
Jul.,  July. 
Jan.,  January. 
Jona.,  Jonathan. 
Josh.,  Joshua. 
Jr.  or  Jan.,  Junior. 
Kan.,  Kansas. 
Kt.,  Knight. 
Ky.,  Kentucky. 
B.,  I.,  or  £,  A  pound  sterling. 
Bat.,  Latin,  Latitude. 
Bd.,  Lord. 
Bev.,  Leviticus. 
BL.B.,  Bachelor  of  Laws. 
Bon.,  Longitude. 
Z.  S.,  Place  of  the  Seal. 
Ba.,  Louisiana. 
B.  C,  Lower  Canada,  Lord  Chan- 

cellor. 
Bdp.,  Lordship. 
Bieut.,  Lieutenant. 
BB.B.,  Doctor  of  Laws. 
Bou.  or  Ba.,  Louisiana. 
M.  A.,  Master  of  Arts.  Military  Acar* 

demy. 
Maj.,  Mfgor. 


108 


ABBREVIATIONS. 


Mass.,  Massachusetts. 

M.  C.y  Member  of  Congress. 

Md.,  Maryland. 

Med.,  Medicine. 

Messrs.,  Gentlemen,  Sirs. 

Minn.,  Minnesota. 

Mo.,  Missouri,  Month. 

Mr.,  Master  or  Mister. 

Mt.,  Mount  or  Mountain. 

Mad.,  Madam. 

Mas.,  Masculine. 

Matt.,  Matthew. 

M.  1).,  Doctor  of  Physic. 

Me.,  Maine. 

Mem.,  Kemcmber,  Memorandum. 

Mich.,  Michigan. 

Miss,  or  J/*.,  Mississippi. 

M.  P.,  Member  of  Parliament. 

Mrs.,  Mistress. 

MS.,  Manuscript. 

MSS.,  Manuscripts. 

N.,  North,  Note,  Number. 

Nat.,  Natural. 

N.  B.,  Take  notice. 

N.  E.,  Northeast,  New  Englan'i. 

N.  H.,  New  Hampshire. 

N.N.E.,  North-Northeast. 

No.,  Number. 

Nov.,  November. 

Num.,  Numbers. 

N.  W.,  Northwest. 

N.  A.,  North  America. 

Naih.,  Nathaniel. 

N.  G.,  North  Carolina. 

Neb.,  Nebraska. 

N.  J.,  New  Jersey. 

N.  N.  W.,  North-Northwest. 

Nam.,  Nominative. 

N.  S.,  Nova  Scotia,  New  Style. 

N.  T.,  New  Testament, 

N.  Y.,  New  York. 

O.,  Ohio. 

Ohj.,  Objective,  Objection. 

Oct.,  October. 

0.  T.,  Old  Testament. 

01.  {Ohiit),  Died. 
OU.,  Obedient. 
O.  S.,  Old  Style. 
Oz.,  Ounce. 

Fa.  or  Penn.,  Pennsylvania. 
Per  or  pr.,  By  the  ;  as,  per  yard. 
Per  ct..  By  the  hundred. 
Phil.,  Philadelphia. 
P.  M.,  Post-Master;  Afternoon. 
P.  P. ,  or  pp. ,  Pa^es. 


Pres.,  President 

Prof.,  Professor, 

Prop.,  Proposition. 

Pro  tern..  For  the  time  beingf, 

P.  S.,  Postscript. 

Piib.,  Public,  Published. 

Pd.,  Paid. 

Pet.,  Peter. 

Phil.,  Philip,  Philippians, 

PI.  or  Plur.,  Plural. 

P.  O.,  Post-office. 

Prep.,  Preposition. 

Proh.,  Problem. 

Pron.,  Pronoun,  Pronunciation. 

Prot.,  Protestant. 

Prov.,  Proverbs. 

Ps.,  Psalms. 

Pwt.,  Pennyweight. 

Q.,  Question,  Queen. 

Qt.,  Quart. 

Qr.,  Quarter. 

Q.  v..  Which  see  ;  As  much  as  yon 

please. 
Rec.  or  R.,  Eecipe. 
Rec.  Sec,  Recording  Secretary. 
Ref.,  Reformed. 
Regt.,  Regiment. 
Rm.,  Revelations,  Reverend. 
R.  I.,  Rhode  Island. 
Rom.,  Romans. 
Rt.,  Right. 

Rt.  Rei).,  Ri^ht  Reverend. 
Rec^d.,  Received. 
Rect.,  Rector,  Receipt. 
Reg.,  Register,  Regular. 
Rep.,  Representative,  Republic 
Rtiet.,  Rhetoric. 
RoU.,  Robert. 
R.  R.,  Railroad. 
Rt.  Hon.,  Right  Honorable. 
/S'.,  Seconds,  Shilling,  Sign,  South. 
S.  A.,  South  America. 
S.  C,  South  Carolina. 
S.  E.,  Southeast. 
Sec,  Section. 
Sept.,  September. 
Smg.,  Singular.* 

Jp.,  Spain,  Spanish. 
r.,  Sir  or  Senior. 
S.  S.  PF.,  South-Soufiweet. 
Sup.,  Superior. 
S.   W.,  Southwest. 
Sax.,  Saxon. 
Sam.,  Samuel. 
Schr.,  Schooner. 


MISCELLANEOUS    EXERCISES. 


109 


Sec.^  Secretary. 

Sen.^  Senator,  Senior. 

Serg.  or  Serj.^  Sergeant. 

Sol.^  Solomon,  Solution. 

Sq.^  Square. 

S.  S.  E.^  South-Southeast. 

St.^  Saint,  Street. 

Surg.^  Surgeon. 

Tenn.^  Tennessee. 

Theol,  Theology. 

Tfios.^  Thomas. 

Tit,  Titus,  Title. 

2'heo  ,  Theodore. 

Thess.,  Thessalonians. 

J? Vm.,  Timothy. 

2K,  Translation,  Transpose,  Treas- 
urer. 

U.  C,  Upper  Canada. 

U.  S.,  United  States. 

U.  iS.  M.  u4.,  United  States  Military 
Academy. 

U.  S.  N.,  United  States  Navy. 

OIL,  Last,  or  the  last  month. 

U.  S.  A.,  United  States  of  America  ; 
United  States  Army. 

U.  S.  *S\,  United  States  Senate. 

V.  (Vide),  See ;  Verse. 


Vis.,  Viscount. 
Vol.,  Volume. 
V.  P.,  Vice-President. 
Va.,  Virginia. 
Viz.,  Namely;  To  wit 
Vols.,  Volumes. 
Vt.,  Vermont. 
W.,  West. 
Wk.,  Week. 
Wis.,  Wisconsin. 
Wm.,  William. 
Wp  ,  AVorship. 
Wt.,  Weight. 
Wed.,  Wednesday. 
W.  I.,  West  Indies. 
W.  Lon.,  West  Longitude. 
W.  N.  W.,  West-Northwest. 
W.  S.   W.,  West-Southwest. 
Xmas.,  Christmas. 
Xt.,  Christ. 
Yd.,  Yard. 
Zr.,  Your. 
Y.,  Year. 
Yds.,  Yards. 
Yr^.,  Yours. 
Zool.,  Zoology. 
<&G.,  And  so  forth. 


LESSON  XXXVI. 

MI^ELLANEOUS   EXERCISES    ON   THE   PARTS    OF   SrEECIl. 

'  Write  correctly  the  following  sentences : 

Of  these  professions  each  are  crowded. — Two  were  ordered,  but  neither 
were  sent. — The  nation  are  powerful. — Seeing  with  one's  own  eyes,  sel 
dom  fail  to  bring  conviction. — People  is  never  wanting  to  join  in  the  wild- 
est enterprise. — Man's  happiness  or  misery  depend  much  on  himself. — To 
profess  regard  and  act  differently,  discover  unworthiness  of  character. — To 
profess  regard,  and  to  act  differently,  constitutes  a  too  common  kind  ol 
treachery. — I  or  thou  am  the  person  to  undertake  the  business. — Both  of 
the  scholars,  or  one  of  them  at  least,  was  present  at  the  transaction. — Thou 
1,  or  the  constable,  are  to  be  called  up  in  order  to  be  reprimanded. 

First,  I,  and  then  George,  and  then  my  brother  James,  is  to  be  monitor. — 
How  does  John  and  his  father  do  ? — Here  is  James  and  I  to  assist  you. — 
Never  were  a  people  so  infatuated. — Brutus,  him  that  repelled  Tarquin, 
not  him  that  joined  with  others  to  assassinate  Caesar,  was  a  patriot  that 
used  legitimate  means  to  rescue  his  country  from  tyranny. — I  know  it  could 


110  MISCELLANEOUS    EXERCISES. 

not  have  been  her ;  but  whether  or  no  it  was  them,  I  am  not  able  to  d**- 
clare. — Was  it  possible  to  be  them  ? — Whom  do  the  people  say  that  we  are  ? 
Ask  him  whom  ne  has  been  thought  to  be. — It  was  thee  whom  I  saw. — I 
should  not  like  to  be  him. — His  greatest  concern  and  highest  enjoyment^ 
were  to  be  approved  in  the  sight  of  his  Creator. 

I  care  not  for  others,  them  being  on  my  side. — Us  being  appointed  to 
the  duty,  you  have  no  right  to  interfere. — Charity  to  the  poor,  when  gov- 
erned by  knowledge  and  prudence,  there  are  no  persons  who  will  not  ad- 
mit it  to  be  a  virtue. — Two  substantives,  when  they  come  together,  and  dp 
not  signify  the, same  thing,  the  former  must  be  in  the  possessive  case. — I 
do  not  think  that  any  one  should  incur  censure  for  being  tender  of  their 
reputation. — I  will  see  every  sufferer,  and  do  my  utmost  to  relieve  their 
distress.— The  crowd  was  so  great  that  I  could  not  get  through  them. — He 
is  like  a  beast  of  prey,  who  destroys  without  pity. — The  worst  kind  of 
men,  when  it  is  in  extremity,  acknowledges  its  dependence  on  a  Power 
unseen. — The  men  and  things  which  he  has  studied,  have  not  improved 
him. — My  sister  and  I,  as  well  as  my  brother,  are  daily  employed  in  their 
several  occupations. — The  smith  and  the  carpenter  are  at  work  ;  but  even 
with  your  help,  you  will  not  finish  to-day. — The  multitude  were  deter- 
mined to  have  its  own  will. 

He  paid  twenty  guineas,  which  are  too  high  a  price. — He  is  careless  of 
the  means  prescribed  for  his  recovery,  which  make  his  case  almost  hope- 
less.— Henry  the  Sixth,  of  England,  was  unfitted  for  the  times  he  lived  in, 
which  were  the  immediate  cause  of  the  War  of  the  Eoses. — You  must  leave 
off  these  kind  of  indulgences. — You  have  been  playing  this  two  hours. — 
Boy's  face  often  wants  a  good  washing. — Many  an  one  will  suffer. — He  was 
extreme  prodigal,  and  his  property  is  now  near  exhausted. — We  may  reason 
very  clear  and  strong,  without  knowing  that  there  was  such  a  thing  as  a 
syllogism. 

Maria  always  appeared  amiably ;  she  never  speaks  severe  or  contemptu- 
ous.— My  opinion  was  given  rather  on  a  cursory  perusal  of  the  book. — 
Thomas  is  equipped  with  a  new  pair  of  shoes  and  a  new  pair  of  gloves  ;  he 
is  the  servant  of  an  old  rich  man. — Those  sort  of  persons  did  real  injury. 
Where  are  you  going? — He  went  there  in  an  hour. — My  ancestors  virtue 
is  not  mine. — His  brothers  offence  will  not  condemn  him.— A  mans  man- 
ner's frequently  influence  his  fortune. — Wisdoms  precept's  form  the  good 
mans  interest. — Moses  rod  was  turned  into  a  serpent. — Your's  is  better 
than  her's ;  but  his',  when  properly  viewed,  seems  best  of  all.— I  hope  it 
is  not  I  who  he  is  displeased  with. — To  my  good  friend,  he  who  has  been 
my  guardian,  I  dedicate  this  memorial. 


SENTENCES.  HI 


LESSON    XXXVII. 

SENTENCES. 

An  assemblage  of  words  expressing  a  complete  thought, 
h  called  a  sentence.  A  succession  of  sentences  forms  a 
composition. 

A  series  of  sentences  relating  to  one  subject,  or  to  one 
part  of  a  subject,  composes  a  paragraph.  Every  successive 
paragraph  commences  on  a  new  line.  The  proper  division 
of  a  letter,  or  discourse,  or  treatise,  into  paragraphs,  is  an 
important  matter. 

The  elements^  or  constituent  parts  of  a  sentence^  are 
words,  phrases,  or  clauses. 

The  principal  parts  of  a  sentence  are  those  words  which  are 
necessary  to  make  an  assertion.  The  subordinate  parts  may  be 
denominated  adjuncts.  Thus,  in  the  sentence,  "  Virgil,  in  the 
eighteenth  book  of  the  ^neid,  describes  the  manners  of  the 
primitive  inhabitants  of  the  country,"  the  principal  parts  are, 
"Virgil  describes  manners;"  all  the  other  words  are  adjuncts, 

or  subordinate  parts,  modifying  or  limiting  the  principal  parts. 
♦■ 
A  sentence  has  two  principal  parts  :  the  Subject  and  the 

Predicate, 

The  Subject  is  tlie  word,  or  assemblage  of  words,  of  which 
something  is  declared. 

The  Predicate  is  the  word,  or  words,  expressing  what  is  de- 
clared of  the  subject.  Thus:  "The  earth  is  the  Lord's."  The 
earth  is  tlie  subject ;  is  the  Lord''8,  is  the  predicate.  The  predi- 
cate sometimes  includes  an  Object. 

Exercises. 
1.  Fill  up  the  blanks  with  a  subject : 

is  an  orator.    defeated  Napoleon.    is  great.     —  lovea 

mo.     has  learned  geometry.     have  gone. 


112  EXERCISES    ON    SUBJECT    AND    PREDICATE 

2.  Fill  up  the  blanks  with  a  predicate  : 

Congress .  The  nation  .  Pride .  Humility .  Dili- 
gence   .     Success . 

The  subordinate  parts^  or  adjunct  elements  of  a  sentence^ 
are  distinguished  (by  Clark,  p.  28)  as  adjective  or  adverb- 
ial;  the  former — whether  words,  phrases,  or  sentences — 
being  such  as  answer  to  the  questions.  What  f  What 
kind  ?  Whose  f  How  many  f  &c.,  and  in  construction 
being  attached  to  nouns  or  pronouns.  The  adverbial  ad- 
juncts answer  to  the  questions,  How  f  Why  f  Where  f 
Whence?  Whether?  &c.  These  adjuncts  are  attached  to 
verbs,  participles,  adjectives,  or  adverbs. 

Thus,  in  the  sentence,  "  The  whole  American  army  now  retreated 
through  New  Jersey  towards  Philadelphia,"  the  principal  parts  are  army 
retreated.  The  other  words  are  adjective  and  adverbial  adjuncts,  indicated 
by  asking  questions,  as  above.  What  army  ?  American.  What  or  hou 
much  t  Whole.  What  whole  ?  The.  Retreated  ivhen  ?  Now.  Where  ot 
whither  ?    Through  New  Jersey.    In  what  directum  ?    Towards  Philadelphia. 

Exercises. 

Write  out,  separately,  the  principal  parts  of  the  follow- 
ing sentences — then,  the  adjective  adjuncts — then,  the  ad- 
verbial. 

The  British  army  sustained  a  heavy  loss  in  the  conflict,  from  eight  hun 
dred  to  a  thousand  men. — But,  being  determined  to  follow  up  the  victory, 
they  soon  proceeded,  under  Lord  Cornwallis,  to  attack  Fort  Lee,  on  the 
other  side  of  the  river. — As  the  British  forces  were  evidently  too  strong  for 
him,  he  evacuated  it  before  he  lost  the  opportunity. 


LESSON  XXXVIII. 

THE   SUBJECT   OP   A  SENTENCE. 

1.  The  Subject  is  either  Simple^  consisting  of  a  single 
word ;  or  Coinplex^  when  it  consists  of  more  than  one. 
The  former  is  sometimes  called   the   Grammatical ;  the 


THE  SUBJECT  OF  A  SENTENCE.  113 

latter,  the  Logical.  For  example :  "  Paul,  the  Apostle, 
was  a  truly  great  man."  Here,  '-''PauP'*  is  the  simple  sub- 
ject ;  ^^Paul^  the  Apostle^"^  is  the  complex  subject. 

2.  The  complex  subject  is  either  a  Phrase^  or  a  Clause, 
By  phrase,  is  meant  a  series  of  words  associated,  but  not 
forming  an  assertion  ;  as,  to  the  city  /  over  the  mountain  / 
in  fact ^  in  hand ;  to  write;  to  compose.  The  phrase 
thus  consists,  either  of  an  infinitive,  or  of  a  preposition  and 
its  object. 

3.  A  Clause  is  a  subordinate  proposition  in  a  sentence ; 
as,  "  Washington,  who  was  the  first  President  of  this  coun- 
try., we  all  venerate."  "  He  said,  that  Jefferson  wrote  it.^^ 
"  She  arrived,  when  I  was  absent,'''' 

Clauses  may  be  distinguished  by  some  prominent  part  of 
speech  which  they  contain  :  thus,  participial^  adverbial^ 
relative^  compellative^  or  vocative.  This  latter  contains  the 
name  or  title  of  the  object  addressed;  as,  "J!/y  son^  give 
me  thy  heart." 

4.  The  Subject  of  a  Sentence  consists,  then,  either  of  a 
word,  a  phrase,  a  word  with  a  phrase  adjoined,  a  clause,  or 
even  a  sentence ;  for  example  : 

God  is  to  be  worshipped.  We^  his  creatures^  should  worship  Him.  To 
worship  God^  is  the  duty  of  all.  That  God  mvst  he  worshipped  none  oan 
deny.  "  All  men  are  created  equal,"  says  our  Declaration  of  Indepen- 
dence. 

The  subject  is  generally  either  a  noun  or  a  pronoun.  Other 
parts  of  speech  are  sometimes  used  instead  of  nouns,  and  may  be 
employed  as  the  subjects  of  a  sentence,  namely:  adjecthes^  verhs 
in  the  infinitive  mood^  and  participles.  For  example :  "  Tlie  wise 
make  good  associates."  "  To  err  is  human."  ''  Walking  is 
healthful." 

Even  a  syllable,  or  a  letter,  may  be  the  subject  of  a  sentence; 
thus,  A  is  an  indefinite  article.  Ah  is  a  syllable.  Suh  is  the 
prefix  of  subject. 

Any  word,  as  a  word,  may  be  the  subject;  thus,  John  is  a 
proper  noun.      Very  is  an  adverb. 


J 14  EXERCISES   ON   THE   SUBJECT. 

Any  part  of  speech  used  as  a  noun,  may  be  a  subject ;  as,  Up  is 
a  relative  term.     The  ins  and  the  outs  are  ever  at  war. 

The  subject  of  a  sentence  may  always  be  ascertained  by  putting 
wlio  or  what  before  the  verb;  thus,  in  regard  to  the  sentences 
above  given,  Who  make  good  associates?  The  answer  gives  the 
subject^  namely,  the  wise.  What  is  human?  Answer,  to  err. 
This  phrase  is  the  subject  of  the  sentence. 

Exercises. 

1.  Supply  pronominal  subjects  in  the  following  sen- 
tences : 

appear  to  you  in  a  new  character.    are  to  understand  that  1 

have  a  particular  notion  about  it.    go  on  much  in  our  old  way. 

2.  Supply  subjects  that  are  adjectives :  those  which 
express  quality,  and  those  which  only  restrict,  without  ex- 
pressing quality ;  as,  each^  every ^  five^  ten^  &c. 

The are  less  numerous  than  the  ignorant.  The deserve  re- 
proof; the ,  praise.    of  us  is  deficient.     one  feels  his  loss. 

is  half  of  ten. 

3.  Supply,  as  subjects,  the  infinitive  mood : 

is  better  than  to  walk.    is  a  trial  of  our  patience.    that's 

the  question.    is  sinful.    is  the  mark  of  a  wise  man.    be- 
trays great  weakness. 

4.  Supply  participles  as  subjects  : 

one  day  in  seven  as  sacred,  is  the  duty  of  all.    such  disturo- 

ances  is  unlawful.    ourselves  is  an  mjury. 

5.  Supply,  as  subjects,  some  syllable,  or  letter ;  some 
word  used  merely  as  a  word ;  or  any  part  of  speech  (not 
an  adjective,  participle,  or  pronoun)  used  as  a  noun : 

ia  the  third  letter  of  the  alphabet.    is  the  accented  syllable 

in  remember,    is  an  adverb. 


THE   COMPLEX   OR   MODIFIED   SUBJECT.  115 

LESSON    XXXIX. 

THE   COMPLEX    OR   MODIFIED   SUBJECT 

The  simple  subject  may  be  rendered  more  full  or  defi- 
nite— 

1.  By  apposition ;  that  is,  by  another  noun  in  the  same  case, 
connected  to  it,  for  the  sake  of  explaining  or  describing  it ;  as, 
Paul,  the  Apostle^  wrote  several  Epistles.  Kapoleon,  the  emperor^ 
has  gained  great  notoriety. 

2.  By  a  prepositional  phrase  ;  i.  e.^  a  phrase  beginning  with  a 
preposition.     The  Emperor  of  France  attracts  universal  attention. 

3.  By  a  noun  or  pronoun  in  the  possessive  case ;  as.  The  Presi- 
dent's house  is  wortli  visiting.     My  house  is  for  sale. 

4.  By  an  adjective;  as,  Good  men  are  few. 

5.  By  a  participle  ;  as,  John,  having  died,  was  succeeded  in  of- 
fice by  his  brotlier. 

6.  By  a  relative  clause  ;  that  is,  by  a  clause  beginning  with  a 
relative  pronoun ;  as.  All  that  believe  in  Christ  shall  be  saved. 
Men,  who  are  penitent,  may  expect  mercy.  The  belief  that  time 
is  short  urges  us  to  repentance. 

7.  By  an  infinitive  verb,  alone,  or  with  its  modifying  and 
dependent  words  adjoined  :  The  desire  to  improve  will  prompt 
to  effort.  The  desire  to  improve  in  learning  will  prompt  to 
effort. 

8.  By  any  words,  however  many,  that  modify  the  noun;  as, 
Alfred,  being  unable  to  read,  though  twelve  years  of  age,  and  loving 
Saxon  poetry,  to  which  he  listened  with  undivided  attention,  when 
others  read  or  recited  it,  applied  himself  with  great  zeal  and  suc- 
cess to  the  reading  of  the  language. 

9.  The  subject  may  consist  of  a  quotation,  or  any  phrase  ;  as, 
"i^<?r  me  to  live  is  Christ,  and  to  die  is  gain,"  is  the  noble  senti-i 
ment  of  Paul.     "  Death  or  victory ^^^  is  the  watchword. 


116  MODIFICATION   OF    THE   SUBJECT. 

Exercises. 

1.  Modify  the  subjects  by  Nouns  in  Apposition. 

Nero, ,  was  detested.  I, ,  write  this  exercise.  You, •,  imi- 
tate my  example.     We, ,  ought  not  to  live  unto  ourselves. 

2.  Modify  the  subjects  by  Prepositional  Phrases. 

Joan ,  was  a  heroine.     The  King ,  and  Lord ,  is  God.     The 

desire is  universal.     The  love is  the  root  of  all  evil. 

3.  Modify  the  subjects  by  ISTouns  or  Pronouns  in  the 
possessive  case. 

book  is  missing.  The legate  was  despised.  The mes- 
sage has  arrived.  The confidence  failed.  The  arm  was  ampu- 
tated. 

4.  Modify  the  subjects  by  Adjectives. 

The works  of  God  deserve  our  study.    The miracles  of  Christ 

prove  his  divine  mission.     The opportunities  of  gaining  mental  disci- 
pline should  be  improved. 

5.  Modify  the  subjects  by  Participles. 

The  nation  deserves  our  pity.    The  house  met  our  view. 

The soldiers  fled  in  haste.    I  returned  home. 

6.  Modify  the  subjects  by  a  Relative  Clause. 

The  art  of  English  composition, ,  may  be  acquired  by  diligent  ef- 
fort. The  boy, ,  will  return  in  a  few  days.  He, ,  will  be  punish- 
ed.    The  child, ,  will  grow  up  to  an  infamous  manhood. 

7.  Modify  the  subjects  by  an  Infinitive  Verb. 

The  time is  at  hand.     The  desire ,  should  be  cultivated.     The 

hint ,  should  be  attended  to.     The  effort deserves  all  praise.     The 

neglect cost  him  his  life. 

8.  Modify  the  subjects  by  a  Phrase  or  Quotation. 

,  were  the  last  words  of  Marmion.     ,  were  the  words  of  Balaam- 

,  is  the  first  sentence  of  the  Bible.    ,  is  the  goldeii  rule  given  in 

onr  Lord's  Sermon  on  the  Mount. 


THE   PREDICATE.  117 


LESSON  XL. 

THE  PREDICATE  OP  A  SENTENCE. 

1.  The  Predicate  (that  which  is  said  of  a  subject),  like 
the  subject,  may  be  either  simple  or  complex — gram^mati- 
cal  or  logical.  It  is  sim^ple^  when  it  consists  of  a  common 
verb ;  as.  The  horse  stands  ;  or  when  a  single  noun,  or 
adjective,  or  pronoun  is  used  with  the  substantive  verb  to 
constitute  the  predicate  ;  as.  He  is  worthy,  Cicero  was  an 
orator.     It  is  I, 

Other  words  added  to  the  Simple  or  Grammatical  Pred- 
icate, constitute  with  it  a  Complex  or  Logical  Predicate ; 
as.  The  horse  runs  fast.  He  is  xcorthy  of  the  highest 
praise.  Cicero  was  an  orator  of  the  highest  order  of  talent. 
It  is  I  myself  lohom  you  see. 

2.  The  Predicate  says  or  affirms  something  concerning 
its  subject,  and  consists  of  what  is  called  the  copula  (some 
part  of  the  verb  to  he)^  and  that  which  is  asserted  by  add- 
ing a  noun,  an  adjective,  a  pronoun,  or  a  participle,  or  some 
other  part  of  speech.  Thus,  Gold  is  a  metal.  Iron  is  use- 
ful.    He  is  learned.     She  is  winning.     It  is  I. 

3.  Sometimes  both  parts  of  the  Predicate  are  expressed 
by  a  verb ;  as.  The  ship  sails.,  =  is  sailing.  "  The  man  ^5," 
that  is,  exists.  There  is  the  man.  There.,  in  such  sen- 
tences, precedes  the  verb  to  5e,  and  the  subject  follows  it. 

(1.)  The  Predicate  asserts  existence  ;  as,  I  am ;  they  are. 
(2.)  It  asserts  identity^  or  what  a  thing  is  ;  as,  It  is  I ;  to  live 
is  to  exist ;  oxygen  is  a  gas. 

(3.)  It  asserts  an  act ;  as,  The  earth  revolves  ;  the  boys  write. 
(4.)  It  asserts  a  quality  ;  as.  The  stove  is  hot ;  the  tea  is  green, 

4.  The  Predicate,  then,  is  expressed : 

Eitlier  by  a  verb  alone:  by  a  verb  and  a  noun,  either  in  the 


118  EXERCISES   ON    THE   PREDICATE. 

nominative  or  objective  case:  by  aoberh  and  wJiat  is  equivalent 
to  a  noun;  as,  to  perambulate  is  to  run:  by  a  transitive  verb  and 
its  object;  as,  He  has  read  the  booh:  by  a  verb  and  an  adjective ; 
as.  The  air  is  refreshing :  by  a  verb  and  an  adverb^  or  adverbial 
phrase^  expressive  of  time,  place,  rest,  or  motion  in  a  place,  the 
cause,  effect,  manner,  instrument,  degree,  circumstance,  &c.,  of  an 
action  ;  as,  "  We  once  again  are  met  in  council:^''  by  a  quotation ; 
as.  Bacon  remarked,  ''Ho  choose  time  is  to  save  time:''''  by  a  verb 
and  a  preposition ;  as,  all  is  over:  by  a  verb  and  a  dependent 
clause ;  as,  "He  tries  to  do  good;''''  "He  desires  that  you  would 
not  go ;"  by  a  verb  together  with  a  preposition  and  its  object ;  as, 
He  came  over  the  river. 

Exercises. 

1.  Append  a  predicate  asserting  existence. 

Kings .    Students .    Historians .     Winds . 

2.  Append  a  predicate  asserting  identity. 

It .    You .    Eagles .    Copper .    The  moon .    The 

moon  — — .     The  stars .    Children .    The  grass .    Time . 

3.  Append  a  predicate  asserting  an  action. 

Tides  .     Shadows  .    Trees  .     The  months  .     The 

Bun . 

4.  Append  a  predicate  asserting  a  quality. 

The  messenger  .     The  leprosy  .    Sin  .     The  American» 

.     The  Indians  .     The  English  .     The  Scotch .     The 

Irish . 

5.  Let  the  predicate,  consisting  of  a  verb  and  an  adverb, 
be  supplied. 

Remorse  of  conscience .     The  approbation  of  the  good .     The 

Chinese .    The  Empire  of  Japan .    Our  country .    The  child 

— — .     The  tubular  bridge . 

6.  Supply  a  predicate  consisting  of  a  verb  and  a  prepo- 
sition, used,  of  course,  as  an  adverb. 

The  precipice .     The  horse .     The  faith ,     Your  exertiorifi 

.     My  iourney .     His  health . 


TRANSITIVE   AND   INTRANSIITVE   SENTENCES. 


119 


7.  Supply  a  predicate  consisting  of  a  verb  and  a  depend- 
ent clause,  or  quotation. 


He. 

Solomon. 

St.  Paul. 

My  father. 

My  sister. 

The  mathematics. 

How  we. 

Railroad. 

The  river  St.  Lawrence. 

Misfortunes. 

The  light. 

Learning. 

Truth. 

Old  age. 

Modesty. 

Mirth. 

ReDutation. 

Diliflrence. 

LESSON  XLI. 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  SENTENCES. 

TRANSITIVE   AND   INTRANSITIVE    SENTENCES. 

The  Transitive  sentence  contains  a  transitive  verb, 
which  requires  an  Object  depending  on  it  to  complete  the 
sense. 

Thus :  The  heavens  declare  the  glory  of  God.  Here  glory  is  the 
object  of  the  transitive  verb  declare.  Cultivate  piety ;  piety  is 
the  object  of  cultivate.  The  object  of  a  sentence  may  be  a  Noun^ 
a  Pronoun^  a  Word.,  a  Phrase.,  or  a  Sentence  used  as  a  Noun. 

The  Intransitive  sentence  contains  none  but  intransitive 
verbs :  those  which  do  not  admit  of  an  object  depending 
on  them,  but  make  complete  sense  otherwise. 

As,  The  sun  rises.  I  am.  The  stars  shine.  The  Intransitive 
sentence  is  one  affirming  the  being,  the  state,  or  the  condition  of 
its  subject,  or  an  act  which  does  not  expend  itself  on  an  object. 

A  Transitive  sentence  may  he  changed  into  an  intransi' 
tive  07ie.,  by  making  the  object  of  tlie  verb  a  subject,  the 
active  voice  passive,  and  the  subject  of  the  transitive  verb 
the  object  of  the  preposition  "  by."  Thus,  "  He  bought 
the  book."     "  The  book  was  bought  by  him." 


120  COMPLEX   SENTENCES. 


Exercises. 

1.  Write  a  few  Transitive  sentences,  with  the  following 
subjects : 

The  Queen  of  Great  Britain. 
The  President  of  the  United  States. 
The  Common  School  System. 
The  Press  of  this  country. 
The  possession  of  riches. 
The  abuse  of  our  faculties. 
The  triumph  of  Christianity. 
The  progress  of  Art. 

2.  Write  a  few  Intransitive  sentences  with  the  following 
subjects : 

1.  The  snow.  2.  The  rain.  3.  The  rivers.  4.  The  atmosphere.  5.  Hu- 
man philosophy.  6.  The  ancient  orators.  7.  The  dark  ages.  9.  Men  and 
women.     10.  The  Congress.     11.  The  woods.    12.  The  fever. 

3.  Convert  the  following  transitive  sentences  into  intran- 
sitive. 

1.  He  has  crossed  the  river.  2.  He  has  acquired  prodigious  wealth  and 
influence.  8.  The  year  1859  has  borne  away  to  the  grave  an  unusual  num- 
ber of  great  and  good  men.  4.  All  should,  in  their  youth,  study  English 
composition,  with  care  and  diligence.  5.  Those  who  write  much,  in  conlbr- 
mity  to  the  rules  proposed,  may  expect  success,  and  consequent  satisfaction 


LESSON   XLII. 

COMPLEX    SENTENCES. 

1.  A  complex  sentence  contains  one  or  more  dependent 
propositions  or  clauses,  which  define  or  explain  the  princi- 
pal sentence ;  these  are  called  dependent  or  subordinate, 
because  they  make  complete  sense  only  when  taken  in 
connection  with  the  principal  proposition  or  clause 

For  example.  He  eats  that  lie  may  live.  ^'He  eats"  is  the 
independent,  or  primary  clause;  ''  he  may  live"  the  dependent  or 


DEPENDENT   CLATJHKB.  121 

secondary.  I  am  sad  when  I  listen  to  that  music.  "  I  am  sad," 
Is  the  independent  clause;  the  other  is  subordinate,  and  dependent 
on  it. 

2.  These  dependent  propositions  or  clauses,  are  adjec- 
tive^ relative,  adverhiat^  conjunctive^  or  participial  where 
they  are  introduced  by  a  relative  pronoun,  an  adverb,  a 
conjunction,  a  participle,  or  by  a  noun  and  participle  abso- 
lute. 

(1.)  The  Adjective  Clause:  as,  A  man,  eager  to  learn^  applied 
himself  to  study. 

(2.)  The  Relative  Clause :  as.  He  was  admired  by  all  who  heard 
him  ;  who^  connects  this  clause  with  the  independent  clause  prece- 
ding it.     "  He,  wJiose  hotcse  you  occupy^  is  wealthy." 

(3.)  The  Adverbial  Clause:  as,  "He  retired  when  he  saw  Jit; 
commencing  with  the  adverb  when.  The  adverbial  clause  expresses 
some  circumstances  of  time,  place,  mode,  cause,  or  reason. 

(4.)  The  Conjunctive  Clause :  "  I  wish  that  you  may  he  happy  ;" 
commencing  with  the  conjunction  that. 

(5.)  The  Appositive  Clause  consists  of,  or  commences  with,  a 
noun  or  pronoun  placed  in  apposition  to  a  preceding  word  or 
clause,  which  it  explains  or  defines;  as,  Washington,  the  father 
of  his  country. 

(6.)  A  Parenthetical  Clause  is  one  that  is  embraced  in  a  paren- 
thesis ;  as,  The  teacher  (having  come  from  Europe)  entered  upon 
his  duties. 

An  absolute  clause^  not  dependent  for  construction  on  other 
parts  of  the  sentence;  as.  Listen  to  me,  my  friends. 

Sometimes  the  connecting  word  is  understood — not  expressed ; 
as.  You  cannot  say  (that)  I  have  been  tardy.  I  believe  (that)  he 
is  faithful.     This  is  the  person  (whom)  I  meant. 

(7.)  The  Participial  Clause :  as,  "  The  worh  having  been  per- 
formed., the  men  withdrew,"  that  is,  "when  the  work  had  been 
performed,  the  men  withdrew;"  the  first  clause  is  the  participial, 
dependent  clause.  It  is  not  material,  so  far  as  the  sense  is  con- 
cerned, whether  the  independent,  or  the  dependent  clause  is 
placed  first. 

(8.)  There  is  another  kind  of  clause  which  may  be  termed  an 
Infinitive  Clause ;  it  consists  of  an  infinitive  verb  with  its  subject 


J  22  EXERCISES   ON    DEPENDENT   CLAUSES. 

(in  the  objective  case)  united  to  the  other  clause  without  a  con- 
nective, and  following  a  transitive  verb  as  its  object;  as,  "I  be- 
lieve Ood  to  lejusf'' — equivalent  to,  "  I  believe  that  God  is  just." 

Exercises. 

1.  Complete,  in  writing,  the   sentences   containing  the 
following  Relative  clauses : 

That  has  excited  much  surprise. — Who  are  fairly  entitled. — Who  pre- 
sided.— Who  rendered  himself  useful. — Who  are  now  instructed  in  every 
branch  of  education. — Whose  grandeur  surpassed  my  expectations. — Which 
overflowed  the  path. — Who  neglected  their  studies. 

2.  Complete  the  following  sentences  containing  Adverb- 
ial clauses : 

When  tne  retreat  commenced. — While  all  else  wore  the  appearance  oi 
gloom. — While  yet  a  boy. — However  strong  his  body. — As  far  as  he 
could  go. 

3.  Complete  the  following,  containing  Conjunctive 
clauses : 

That  he  might  be  instructed. — That  they  might  be  able. — That  the  poor 
should  be  provided  for. — That  all  should  honor  their  Creator. — That  time 
i8  short. 

4.  Complete  the  following,  containing  Participial  clauses : 

Being  determined  to  follow  up  the  victory. — Having  arrived  at  the  city. 
Being  struck  with  horror. — Losing  all  presence  of  mind. — Mistaking  the 
way. 

5.  Select  and  write  out  the  dependent  clauses  in  the  fol- 
lowing passages,  arranging  them  in  their  respective  classes : 

1.  After  remaining  before  the  city,  at  a  somewhat  respectful  distance, 
till  the  evening  of  the  13th,  they  retired  to  their  shipping,  and  abandoned 
the  enterprise. 

2.  They  had  lost,  in  the  battle  of  the  12th,  their  commander,  General 
Ross,  which  doubtless  had  its  effect. 

8.  During  these  events,  the  enemy  ravaged  the  coasts  of  the  Chesapeake, 
which  reflected  little  credit  on  the  British  character,  and  only  served  to 
exasperate  the  Americans,  and  to  unite  them  in  the  attempt  to  repel  a  for 
that  paid  so  little  resfard  either  to  the  law  of  nations  or  to  that  of  honor. 


SIMPLE   AND   COMPOUND   SENTENCES.  123 

4.  The  army  of  the  United  States,  at  the  north,  had  been  greatly  re- 
duced during  the  spring  and  summer  of  1814 ;  large  portions  having  been 
ordered  to  other  stations. 

6.  Express  the  following  dependent  phrases  by  the  use  of 
an  Infinitive : 

He  expects  that  lie  shall  rank  first  in  his  class. 
He  labored  that  he  might  reach  New  York  that  day. 
That  I  may  not  wrong  your  patience^  I  will  stop. 

7.  Change  the  infinitive,  and  its  subject  in  the  dependent 
clause,  into  a  finite  verb,  with  its  subject,  supplying  the 
proper  connective  : 

I  suppose  the  man  to  be  honest. 

I  reckon  the  distance  to  be  four  miles. 

He  denounced  the  man  to  be  a  villain. 

We  declared  the  lemons  to  be  good. 

They  proclaimed  the  day  to  be  worthy  of  remembrance. 


LESSON    XLIII. 

SENTENCES. — SIMPLE   AND    COMPOUND. 

A  simple  sentence  has  but  one  subject,  and  one  predicate. 
It  has  also  but  one,  object  (when  the  verb  is  transitive) ;  in 
other  words,  a  simple  sentence  expresses  but  one  proposi- 
tion ;  as.  Birds  sing.  The  evening  has  passed  away.  He 
is  fond  of  play.     He  walks  into  town. 

A  compound  sentence  may  contain  (l),  one  assertion  re- 
specting two  or  more  subjects ;  or  (2),  more  than  one  as- 
sertion concerning  one  subject;  or  (3),  more  than  one 
assertion  concerning  more  than  one  subject.  For  example  : 
The  boys  and  girls  study  together.  The  boys  study  and 
play  alone.     The  boys  and  girls  study  and  play  together. 

The  propositions  composing  a  compound  sentence  are 
independent  of  each  other,  as  each  makes  complete  sense 
by  itself. 


124  simple  and  compound  sentences. 

Exercises. 

1.  Change  the  following  compound  sentences  into  simple 
sentences  : 

1.  He  had  no  weapons,  nor  was  violence  offered.  2.  Bonaparte  was  a  pro- 
fessed Catholic,  yet  he  imprisoned  the  Pope.  3.  Eighteoiisness  exalteth  a 
nation ;  but  sin  is  a  reproach  to  any  people.  4.  Wisdom  or  folly  governs 
U3.  5.  He  will  be  there  as  well  as  you.  6.  I  did,  indeed,  welcome  him 
to  my  house ;  but  I  found  him  unworthy  of  my  kindness.  7.  Though  he 
slay  me,  yet  will  I  trust  m  him.  8.  Be  industrious,  otherwise  you  will 
come  to  want.  9.  Hasten  to  reform,  else  you  will  be  ruined.  10.  John  is 
as  learned  as  James.  11.  Either  James  or  John  will  be  there.  12.  The 
mercury  has  sunk  because  the  weather  is  cold.  13.  The  weather  is  cold,  for 
the  mercury  has  sunk.  14.  Wine  makes  him  sick,  on  that  account  he 
drinks  water.     15.  He  intends  to  teach,  therefore  is  learning  French. 

2.  Compose  compound  sentences  by  uniting  the  follow- 
ing simple  sentences,  supplying  connectives  that  may  be 
wanted : 

1.  The  tillers  of  the  ground  live  in  the  open  air. 

The  tillers  of  the  ground  use  exercises  which  expand  the  chest. 

The  tillers  of  the  ground  use  exercises  which  brace  the  nerves. 

The  tillers  of  the  ground  use  exercises  which  brace  the  muscles. 

The  tillers  of  the  ground  acquire  an  uncommon  degree  of  hardiness. 

The  tillers  of  the  ground  acquire  an  uncommon  degree  of  vigor  of  body. 

The  tillers  of  the  ground,  by  the  intensity  of  their  toils,  lose  that  jan- 
tiness  of  limbs  which  the  savage  retains  even  to  old  age. 

The  tillers  of  the  ground,  by  the  intensity  of  their  toils,  lose  that  ease  of 
motion  which  the  savage,  &c. 

The  tillers,  &c.,  toils,  lose  that  nimbleness  of  gait  which  the  savage,  &c. 

2.  Goldsmith  informs  us. 

Two  men  lived  directly  opposite  to  one  another. 

Two  men  lived  in  the  same  street. 

Two  men  had  a  quarrel  together. 

Two  men  had  a  quarrel  on  account  of  the  one  having  informed  against 
the  other. 

The  one  had  informed  against  the  other  for  not  paying  the  duties  on  his 
liquors. 

The  aggrieved  party  taught  his  parrot  to  repeat  the  ninth  command- 
ment. 

The  aggrieved  party  placed  the  cage  at  the  front  of  his  house. 

The  informer,  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  street,  stepped  out  of  his  own 
door. 

The  informer  heard  from  the  parrot  the  admonition : 

"  Tliou  shalt  not  bear  false  witness  against  thy  neighbor.** 


SENTENCES. DECLARATIVE.    ETC.  126 


LESSON    XLIV. 

SENTENCES. DECLARATIVE,  CONDITIONAL,  INTERROGATIVE, 

IMPERATIVE,    EXCLAMATORY. 

A  Declarative  Sentence  is  one  that  affirms  or  declares  a 
fact  or  truth,  either  affirmatively  or  negatively;  as,  The 
sun  shines.     He  and  she  were  both  there.     I  will  not  go. 

A  Conditional  Sentence  is  one  that  expresses  a  fact  or 
truth  conditionally,  or  as  a  supposition  merely ;  as,  If 
thine  enemy  hunger^  feed  him.  Were  I  in  your  place^  I 
would  go. 

An  Interrogative  Sentence  bears  the  form  of  a  question. 
The  object  of  it  is  either  to  ask  for  information,  or  to  assert 
a  fact  with  the  greater  positiveness ;  as.  Will  you  go  f 
Canst  thou  by  searching  find  out  God? 

An  Imperative  Sentence  expresses  a  command,  an  en- 
treaty, a  wish,  or  an  exhortation  ;  as,  JBe  calm.  Attend  ye. 
May  you  be  happy.     Be  ye  angry .^  and  sin  not. 

An  Exclamatory  Sentence  expresses  emotion ;  as.  How 
brightly  the  sun  shines  !  How  abject  is  the  condition  of  a 
miser  !     What  a  genius  Shakspeare  had  ! 

Exercise. 

Convert  some  declarative  sentences  into  those  which  are 
subsequently  named  and  described  ;  thus  : 

Declarative. — John  Howard  was  a  benevolent  man. 
Conditional. — If  John  Howard  was  a  benevolent  man,  he  de- 
mands our  high  respect. 

Interrogative. — Was  John  Howard  a  benevolent  man? 
Imperative. — Let  John  Howard  be  a  benevolent  man. 
Exclamatory. — How  benevolent  a  man  was  John  Howard  I 


126      COERESPONDENCE  AMOKG  PAKTS  OF  A  SENTENCE. 


Examples  for  Practiee. 

1.  Meekness  gives  smooth  answers  to  rough  questions. 

2.  Whatever  is  worth  doing  at  all,  is  worth  doing  well. 
8.  Whatever  he  did,  he  did  with  all  his  might. 

4.  The  battle  of  life,  in  by  far  the  greater  number  of  cases,  must  neccb- 
sarily  be  fought  up  hill. 


LESSON    XLV. 

AGREEMENT    AND    CORRESPONDENCE    AMONG   THE   PARTS    OF 
A   SENTENCE. 

1.  Correct  the  want  of  correspondence  between  the  verbs 
joined  in  the  following  : 

Did  he  not  tell  me  his  fault,  and  entreated  me  to  forgive  him? — To  bo 
moderate  in  our  views,  and  proceeding  temperately  in  the  pursuit  of  them, 
is  the  best  way  to  insure  success. — By  forming  themselves  on  fantastic 
models,  and  ready  to  vie  with  one  another  in  the  reigning  follies,  the  young 
Degin  with  being  ridiculous,  and  often  ended  with  being  vicious  and  im- 
moral. 

2.  Correct  the  defective  correspondence  in  the  words 
used  to  connect  the  parts  of  the  following  : 

He  has  too  much  sense  and  prudence,  than  to  become  a  dupe  to  such  ai 
tilices. — The  resolution  was  not  the  less  fixed,  that  the  secret  was  as  yet 
communicated  to  very  few. — The  senator  gained  nothing  f'lrther  by  his 
speech,  but  only  to  be  commended  for  his  eloquence. — He  has  little  more 
of  the  scholar  besides  his  name. — They  were  no  sooner  risen  but  they  ap- 
plied themselves  to  study. — From  no  other  institution  besides  the  admira- 
ble one  of  juries,  could  so  great  a  benefit  be  expected. — Those  savage  peo- 
ple seemed  to  have  no  other  standard  on  which  to  form  themselves,  excep'i 
\v  hat  chances  to  be  fashionable  and  popular. 

3.  Correct  the  defective  connection  of  parts  in  the  fol- 
lowing : 

A  few  alterations,  and  some  additions  to  the  house,  would  make  it  com- 
fortable.— The  first  proposal  was  essentially  diiferent,  and  inferior  to  the 
second.  —He  is  more  bold  and  active,  but  not  so  wise  and  studious  as  his 
companions. — There  is  no  talent  so  useful,  or  which  puts  men  more  out  of 


CORRESPONDENCE  AMONG  PARTS  OF  A  SENTENCE.      127 

the  reach  of  accidents,  than  discretion. — The  intentions  of  some  of  the  phi- 
losophers, nay,  of  many,  might,  and  probably  were  good. — The  reward  is 
his  due  ;  it  has  already,  or  will  hereafter  be  given  to  him. — Sincerity  is  avS 
valuable,  and  even  more  valuable,  than  knowledge. — No  person  was  ever  so 
perplexed,  or  sustained  the  mortifications,  as  he  has  done  to-day. — These 
arts  have  enlightened,  and  will  enlighten,  every  person  who  shall  atten- 
tively study  them. 

4.  Correct  the  defective  cori'espondence  in  the  following  : 

Never  was  a  man  so  little  accustomed  to  adversity  ;  nor  was  ever  a  man 
tliat  better  sustained  it. — It  is  not  when  fortune  smiles  that  the  heart  is 
tried,  but  at  the  time  she  frowns. — Kindness  and  being  forbearing,  are  the 
means  of  making  ajid  preserving  friends. — How  a  seed  grows  np  into  a 
tree,  and  the  way  the  mind  acts  upon  the  body,  are  mysteries  we  cannot 
fathom. — We  should  often  recollect  what  the  wisest  men  have  said  and 
written,  concerning  human  happiness  and  vanity. — By  temperance,  a  man 
may  preserve  health  ;  by  being  virtuous,  he  may  secure  peace  ;  by  having 
industry,  he  may  gain  competence. 

5.  Correct  the  defective  correspondence  in  the  following : 

Mrs.  A.  B.  presents  her  compliments  to  Mr.  C.  D.,  and  desires  you  will 
consider  me  your  debtor. — As  gold  is  tried  in  the  fire  to  ascertain  its  purity  ; 
afflictions  are  sent  upon  the  earth  to  men. — As  we  never  learn  to  make  the 
best  use  of  time  on  hand  ;  and  every  day  diminishes  that  which  we  be- 
lieve is  still  before  us ;  there  is  a  tract  behind  of  misspent  hours. 

While  using  the  proper  means,  nothing  shall  be  wanting  to  our  success. — 
A  man  cleaning  windows,  the  machine  on  which  he  stood  gave  way,  and 
be  was  precipitated  into  the  street. 


LESSON  XLVI. 

CORRESPONDENCE,  GRAMMATICAL  AND  LOGICAL,  AMONG  THE 
PARTS    OF   A    SENTENCE. 

The  following  are  examples  not  only  of  the  violation  of 

grammatical  correspondence,  but  of  logical  accuracy.   Make 

the  necessary  corrections  in  writing. 

He  passed  through  Germany,  and  the  Baltic  sea,  to  Sweden.— I  under- 
stood him  the  best  of  all  the  others  that  spoke. — The  plan  is  the  likeliest 
of  any  other  to  succeed. — We,  Britons,  do  not  want  a  genius  more  than  the 
rest  of  our  neighbors. — By  intercourse  with  the  world,  we  m^y  improve 


128  PUNCTUATION. 

and  rub  off  the  rnst  of  a  retired  education.— All  people  seek  to  be  happy; 
and  yet  there  are  few  who  attain  it. — It  was  an  unKSUCcessful  undertaking ; 
which,  although  it  has  failed,  is  no  objection  to  an  enterprise  so  well  con- 
certed. Whenever  he  comes,  he  always  inquires  after  your  health. — The 
reason  why  he  did  so,  was  because  he  was  required  to  do  it. 

2.  The  following  sentences,  being  logically  defective, 
should  be  altered  so  that  each  sentence  shall  make  the 
sense  most  likely  to  be  intended. 

I  intended  to  have  transacted  that  affair  yesterday. — I  intended  to  trans- 
act that  affair  by  the  time  you  called,  so  as  to  be  quite  at  leisure. — His 
work  is  perfect ;  his  brother's  more  perfect ;  and  his  father's  most  perfect 
of  all. — His  assertion  was  truer  than  his  opponent's. — The  first  project  was 
to  shorten  discourse,  by  cutting  polysyllables  into  one. — Where  a  string 
of  such  sentences  succeeds  one  another,  the  effect  is  disagreeable. — Am- 
bition is  so  insatiable,  that  it  will  make  any  sacrifice  to  attain  its  objects*. — 
That  picture  of  the  emperor's  does  not  much  resemble  him. — No  human  hap- 
piness is  so  complete  as  to  be  without  alloy. — He  has  passed  through  many 
stormy  seas  and  hinds. — We  are  too  often  hurried  with  the  violence  of  pas- 
sion, or  with  the  allurements  of  pleasure. — I  intended  to  finish  the  letter  be- 
fore the  bearer  called,  that  he  miglit  not  have  been  detained. — George  is  the 
most  learned  of  all  the  other  students  that  belong  to  the  seminary. — To  de- 
spise others  for  their  poverty,  or  to  value  ourselves  for  our  wealth,  are  dispo- 
sitions highly  culpable. — The  new  set  of  curtains  did  not  correspond  to  the 
old  pair  of  blinds. — 1  had  intended  yesterday  to  have  walked  out,  but  I  have 
been  again  disappointed. — His  conduct  is  so  provoking,  that  many  will 
condemn,  and  a  few  will  pity  him. — Though  the  spene  was  very  affecting, 
he  showed  a  little  emotion  on  the  occasion. — In  spite  of  his  misconduct,  he 
had  few  friends. — Notwithstanding  his  illness,  he  had  little  appetite. 


LESSON   XLVII. 

PUNCTUATION. 

Punctuation  is  the  art  of  dividing  written  or  printed  dis- 
course into  certain  larger  and  smaller  portions,  by  meanj^  I 
of  points  or  marks,  which  serve  to  indicate  the  sense  and  | 
relation  of  the  words  employed. 

Of  these  points,  the  Comma  ( , ),  the  Semicolon  ( ; ),  the  Colon  ( : ),  and 
the  Period  ( . ),  (says  Mr.  Goold  Brown,  in  his  elaborate  and  most  copious 


PUNCTUATION.  129 

Grammar  of  English  Grammars),  take  their  names  from  the  parts  of  dis- 
course or  of  a  sentence  which  are  distinguished  by  them.  The  Period^  or 
circuity  is  a  complete  round  of  words,  often  consisting  of  several  clauses  or 
members,  and  always  bringing  out  full  sense  at  the  close.  The  Colon^  or 
memher^  is  the  greatest  division  or  limb  of  a  period,  and  is  the  chief  con- 
structive part  of  a  compound  sentence.  The  Semicolon^  half-inemher  or 
half-limb^  is  the  greatest  division  of  a  colon,  and  is  properly  a  smaller  con- 
structive part  of  a  compound  sentence.  The  Comma^  or  segment^  is  a  small 
part  of  a  clause  cut  qff^  and  is  properly  the  least  constructive  part  of  a  com- 
pound sentence.  A  simple  sentence  is  sometimes  a  whole  period,  sometimes 
a  chief  member,  sometimes  a  half  member,  sometimes  a  segment,  and 
sometimes,  perhaps,  even  less.  Hence  it  may  require  the  period,  the  colon, 
the  semicolon,  the  comma,  or  even  no  point,  according  to  the  manner  in 
which  it  is  used.  A  sentence  whose  relatives  and  adjuncts  are  all  taken 
in  a  restrictive  sense,  may  be  considerably  complex,  and  yet  require  no 
division  by  points  ;  as, 

*'  Thank  him  who  puts  me  loth  to  this  revenge 
On  you  who  wrong  me  not  for  him  who  wrong''d."  Milton 

The  Comma. 

Authors  and  printers  differ  considerably  in  the  frequency 
of  the  use  of  this  point,  and  hence  the  rules  ordinarily 
given  are  not  uniformly  followed.  Those  will  now  be 
given  which  are  deemed  most  useful  and  important. 

EuLE  «f. — Tn  a  simple  sentence,  when  short,  no  comma  is 
needed,  and  no  point  except  a  period  (.)  at  the  end;  but  when 
the  subject  is  largely  modified^  and  thus  rendered  long^  it  should 
be  followed  by  a  comma  (,)  ;  as, 

"  The  region  possessed  a  harbor."  "  The  region  which  Hudson  Jtiad 
discovered,  possessed  a  good  harbor." 

The  comma  is  generally  designed  to  separate  only  those  parts 
of  a  sentence — those  words,  phrases,  or  clauses — which  in  them- 
selves make  imperfect  sense.  It  separates  the  simple  sentences, 
of  which  a  compound  consists  ;  as, 

"Man  proposes,  and  God  disposes."  "  He  neither  was  brave,  nor  was 
he  generous." 

Rule  II. — Expressions  used  in  direct  address^  and  the  words  of 
others  introduced^  though  not  as  a  quotation^  are  separated  from 
other  parts  of  the  sentence  b}'  tlie  comma  ;  as, 

*'  I  thank  you,  my  friends^  for  your  kind  offices."     "  Will  you  go,  sii'?" 


130  PUNCTtTATIOK. 

"  Thus  shalt  thou  say  to  the  children  of  Israel,  I  am  hath  sent  mf.  tinto 
you."     "  It  hurts  a  man's  pride  to  say,  I  do  not  know." 

Rule  III. — Two  or  more  nouns  following  each  otJier  in  the  same 

construction^  are  separated  by  a  conima  ;  as, 

"  The  husband,  wife,  and  children  perished."  "  He  is  supported  by 
his  father,  his  uncle,  and  his  elder  brother." 

When,  however,  two  nouns  are  closely  connected  hy  a  conjunc 
tion^  the  comma  is  omitted  hetween  them  ;  as, 

'•Virtue  and  vice  are  in  strong  contrast."  "Libertines  call  religion 
either  bigotry  or  superstition."  But  if  the  parts  of  the  sentence  thus  con- 
nected are  long,  the  comma  may  be  used  ;  as,  "  Komances  may  be  said  to 
be  miserable  rhapsodies,  w  dangerous  incentives  to  evil." 

EuLE  IV. — 7'wo  or  more  adjectives  modifying  the  same  subject^ 
are  separated  from  each  other  by  commas  ;  as, 

"  He  was  a  brave,  gentle,  dignified  man."  "  The  most  innocent  pleas- 
ures are  the  sweetest,  the  most  rational,  the  most  affecting,  and  the  most 
lasting." 

Two  adjectives^  however,  immediately  connected  l>y  a  conjunc 
tion^  are  not  separated  ly  a  comma  ;  as, 

"  Truth  is  fair  and  artless,  simple  and  sincere,  uniform  and  consistent." 
"  We  must  be  wise  or  foolish." 

Words  used  in  pairs  should  he  separated  in  pairs^  as  in  the  last 
example  but  one. 

This  Rule  (4th)  may  be  applied  to  two  or  more  adverhs  in  im- 
mediate succession^  without  or  with  a  connective ;  as,  He  con- 
ducted himself  bravely  and  decorously. 

Exercises. 

Apply  the  rules  given  above  to  the  following  sentences 
requiring  commas,  by  writing  and  punctuating  them : 

It  is  folly  presumption  wickedness  to  attempt  to  supplement  God's 
means  of  saving  souls  by  man's. — Man  the  greatest  of  men  Whitefield 
Wesley  yea  Peter  Paul  and  John  are  but  instruments  and  as  instruments 
must  do  the  Master's  work  in  the  Master's  way. — Howard's  was  mercy  to 
the  body  Whitefield's  to  the  soul. — This  is  very  definite  and  very  explicit 
and  since  there  is  no  limitation  caution  or  reserve  it  seems  intended  to 
Apply  to  all  times  places  and  persons  and  to  be  set  forth  as  God's  method 
to  be  used  by  man  fo**  saving  souls  down  to  the  end  of  time. 


5>UN0TITATI0N.  131 


LESSON  XLVIII. 

PUNCTUATION. — THE   COMMA. 

Rule  Y. — Tv^o  or  7nore  verbs  or  participles  in  succession^  re* 
lated  to  the  same  subject^  are  separated  by  the  comma ;  as, 

*'  In  a  letter,  we  may  advise,  exhort,  comfort,  request,  and  discuss." 
•'  Virtue  supports  in  adversity,  moderates  in  prosperity." 

When  the  verbs  are  immediately  connected  by  a  conjunction^  they 
a/re  not  separated  by  the  comma  ;  as, 

*'  The  study  of  natural  history  expands  and  elevates  the  mind." 
**  Whether  we  eat  or  drink,  labor  or  sleep,  we  should  be  moderate." 

Here  the  pairs  of  verbs  are  separated  as  pairs  by  the  co7nma. 
So  with  the  participle  ;  as, 

"A  man,  fearing,  serving,  and  loving  his  Creator."  "By  being  ad- 
mired and  flattered,  we  are  often  corrupted." 

When  participles  are  followed  by  modifying  words^  they  are 
generally  separated  by  a  comma  from  other  parts  of  the  sen- 
tence ;  as, 

"The  king,  appromng  the  plan^  put  it  in  execution."  "All  mankind 
compose  one  family,  assembled  under  the  eye  of  one  common  Father." 

Rule  VI. —  Grammatical  ellipsis^  particularly  of  the  verb  or 

connective^  often  requires  to  be  indicated  by  a  comma  ;  as, 

"  Industry,  steadily,  prudently,  and  vigorously  pursued,  leads  to  wealth." 
"  Love,  joy,  peace,  and  blessedness  are  reserved  for  the  good."  "  From 
law  arises  security ;  from  security,  curiosity ;  from  curiosity,  knowledge." 

Rule  YII. — In  a  complex  sentence,  the  dependent  clause  is 
separated  by  a  comma  from  the  principal  clause  ;  as, 

"  When  our  vices  leave  us,  we  flatter  ourselves  that  we  leave  them." 
**The  temperate  man's  pleasures  are  durable,  because  they  are  regular." 

Rule  VIII. — An  absolute  (or  independent)  phrase,  whether 
participial  or  infinitive,  and  other  clauses  and  phrases  involved 
m  sentences,  must  be  separated  by  a  comma  from  other  parts  of  a 
sentence ;  as, 


132  PUNCTUATION. 

'*  To  confess  tl/e  truth,  I  was  in  fault."  "  The  messenger  has  returned, 
his  business  being  accomplished."  "  The  messenger,  his  business  being 
accomplished, 'has  returned."     "  It  is,  in  many  cases,  apparent." 

EuLE  IX. — Se'ceral  infinitive  phrases  succeeding  each  other, 
either  as  subjects  or  objects  of  a  verb,  are  separated  by  a  com- 
ma ;   as, 

"To  relieve  the  indigent,  to  comfort  the  afflicted,  to  protect  the  mno- 
cent,  to  reward  the  deserving,  are  humane  and  noble  employments." 

Exercises. 

Supply  commas  in  the  following  sentences,  according  to 
the  rules  already  given  : 

Of  all  our  faculties  that  of  speech  is  perhaps  least  cultivated  yet  is  moal 
susceptible  of  cultivation  and  pays  best  the  piuns  bestowed  upon  it. — Love 
sincere  earnest  practical  supreme  continuous  everlasting  is  due  to  our  Cre- 
ator.— The  teacher  arriving  at  this  moment  put  a  stop  to  our  folly. — We 
should  regard  pity  succor  defend  the  poor. — By  being  flattered  praised 
and  exalted  he  ceased  to  be  humble. — When  we  go  to  the  city  we  part 
with  the  pleasures  of  the  country. — The  clock  striking  three  we  hastened 
home. — Six  hours  sleep  for  a  man  ;  seven  for  a  woman  ;  eight  for  a  child ; 
and  nine  for  a  pig. — John  assisted  Thomas  Thomas  William  William  Henry 
and  thus  they  all  made  their  way  in  the  world. — The  babe  becomes  a  boy 
the  boy  a  youth  the  youth  a  man  of  full  growth. — David  Evans  Morgan 
Williams  along  with  their  wives  and  children  are  to  join  us  this  evening: 
in  our  festivities. 


LESSON   XLIX. 

PUNCTUATION. — THE   COMMA. 

Rule  X. — A  single  noun  in  apposition  with  another,  ie  nxtt 
separated  from  other  words  hy  a  comma  ;  hid  when  it  is  modified 
'by  several  tcords^  then  the  phrase  requires- a  comma  to  separate  it 
from  the  rest  of  the  sentence:  as, 

'*  The  apostle  Peter."  "  Peter,  the  apostle,  preached  to  the  Jews." 
"Peter,  the  apostle  of  the  circumcision,  preached  to  the  Jews." 

Rule  XI. — The  two  members  of  a  comparative  sentence,  if  they 
are  long,  are  distinguished  lyy  a  comma ;  but  if  short,  not:  thus, 

"  As  the  hart  panteth  after  the  water-brook,  80  doth  my  soul  pant  after 


PUNCTUATION.  133 

thee."     "  Better  is  a  dinner  of  herbs  with  love,  than  a  stalled  ox  and  hatred 
therewith."     "  Mankind  act  oftemr  from  caprice  than  reason." 

Rule  XII. — The  comma  is  used  to  indicate  contrast^  opposition^ 
or  remarhable  points  in  a  sentence^  and  sometimes  separates  words 
closely  connected  in  construction. 

*'  Though  deep,  yet  clear ;  though  gentle,  yet  not  dull ; 
Strong,  without  rage ;  without  o'erf.owing,  full." 

*'  A  good  man  will  love  himself  too  well  to  lose^  and  his  neighbor  too 
well  to  uin^  »i.  estate  by  gaming."  "  Not  only  in  union  with^  but  in  oppo- 
sition to^  the  vii»ws  and  conduct  of  one  another." 

KuLE  XIIJ. — Adverbs^  adverbial^  and  prepositional  phrases^  un- 
less closely  connected  with  some  particular  word  in  the  sentence^  are 
separated  by  a  comma  from  the  rest  of  the  sentence ;  as, 

Finally,  once  more,  however,  in  short,  above  all,  besides,  in  my  opinion, 
tirst,  secondly,  &c.  "  It  is,  however,  the  task  of  criticism  to  establish 
principles." 

So  conjunctions^  when  several  words  intervene  between  them  and 
the  clause  to  which  they  belong^  are  followed  by  a  comma ;  as, 

"Yet,  though  I  hastened,  I  could  not  overtake  him." 

A  comma  sometimes  follows  an  Interjection  ;  as,  "  Behold,  thy 
time  is  at  hand." 

Rule  XIY. — Where  a  finite  verb  is  omitted,  its  place  is  supplied 
by  a  comma;  as,  John  reads  Homer;  Peter,  Virgil.    ^ 

Exercises. 

Write,  and  punctuate  with  the  comma,  the  following 
sentences : 

He  travelled  to  Boston ;  she  to  Portland. — He  who  wants  to  catch  fish 
however  must  not  mind  a  wetting. — He  who  threatens  to  strike  and  does 
not  is  afraid. — Hush  woman  I  knew  all  that  before. — Better  straw  than 
nothing. — Better  There  he  goes  than  There  he  hangs. — Better  the  child 
cry  than  the  mother  sigh.— He  who  builds  a  house  or  marries  is  left  with 
a  lank  purse. — Though  profound  he  is  not  clear. — Though  rich  he  is  not 
liberal. — As  there  is  a  hollow  worldly  happiness  so  there  is  a  foolish 
worldly  wisdom. — Though  poetry  is  an  art  that  addresses  the  imagination 
it  is  not  the  only  one. — He  will  come  no  doubt  if  you  send  for  him. — Above 
a'll  remember  your  promises. — Men  like  trees  lose  their  sap  with  age. 


134  PUNCTUATION. 


LESSON  L. 

PUNCTUATION. — COLON,    SEMIOOLON. 

The  larger  portions  of  a  compound  or  complex  sentence 
are  separated  either  by  a  Colon  ( : ),  or  Semicolon  ( ; ). 

1.  The  first  of  these  is  used  when  a  portion  of  the  sentence  makes 
complete  sense,  and  might  le  closed  with  a  period^  tut  something  is 
added  for  the  purpose  of  illustration  ;  as, 

"A  brute  arrives  at  a  point  of  perfection  that  he  can  never  pass:  in  a 
few  years  he  has  all  the  endowments  he  is  capable  of." 

2.  The  clauses  separated  hy  a  Colon  are  without  connecti'Oes^  as 
they  are  not  related  in  construction.  The  connectives  may  be 
understood,  but  are  not  expressed. 

3.  When  the  connectives  are  expressed,  and  thus  a  closer  connec- 
tion exists^  the  Semicolon  is  to  he  employed.  Like  the  Colon,  it 
separates  the  portions  of  a  sentence  making  complete  sense. 

Examples. — A  happy  change  has  come  over  society  since  that  day ;  and 
Voltaire  has  sunk  into  merited  contempt. 

4.  The  Semicolon  is  placed  before  a  dependent  clause  which 
explains  what  has  deen  said  in  the  preceding  division  of  the  sen- 
tence, or  assigns  a  reason^  or  draws  an  inference,  or  presents  a 
contrast. 

Examples. — "It  is  more  easy  to  take  away  superfluities  thtui  to  supply 
defects ;  and  therefore  he  that  is  culpable,  because  he  has  passed  the  mid- 
dle point  of  virtue,  is  always  accounted  a  fairer  object  of  hope,  than  he 
who  fails  by  falling  short." 

"  Economy  is  no  disgrace ;  for  it  is  bettar  to  live  on  a  little,  than  to  out- 
live a  good  deal." 

*'  A  friend  cannot  be  known  in  prosperity  ;  an  enemy  cannot  be  hid  in 
adversity." 

5.  Short  sentences  which  have  hut  a  slight  dependence  on  each 
other  as  to  sense.^  are  separated  hy  the  semicolon;  as, 

"  My  friend  rose  at  six  o'clock ;  he  breakfasted ;  sat  down  to  write ; 
ooDtimied  writing  till  twelve ;  and  walked  to  his  brother's." 


PUNCTUATION. 


135 


6.  A  general  term^  followed  hy  several  particulars  in  apposition^ 
is  separated  from  them  hy  a  colon  or  semicolon^  while  the  particu- 
lars are  separated  from  each  other  hy  a  comma  ;  as, 

*'  Astronomy  may  be  considered  under  three  heads  :  descriptive,  physi- 
cal, and  practical." 

7.  After  several  successive  clauses  followed  hy  a  semicolon^  where 
a  longer  pause  seems  necessary  hefore  coming  to  the  period^  a  colon 
is  used  ;  as, 

"  A  divine  legislator,  uttering  his  voice  from  heaven ;  an  almighty  gov- 
ernor, stretching  forth  his  arm  to  punish  or  reward ;  informing  us  of  per- 
petual rest  prepared  hereafter  for  the  righteous,  and  of  indignation  and 
wrath  awaiting  the  wicked :  these  are  the  considerations  which  overawe 
the  world,  which  support  integrity,  and  check  guilt." 

The  Golon^  hy  some  writers^  and  the  Semicolon  hy  others^  is  em- 
ployed to  introduce  a  quotation^  an  example^  or  a  speech  ;  as, 

Jesus  said:  "  My  kingdom  is  not  of  this  world."  Sometimes  the  colon 
and  dash  are  used  ;  as,  And  God  said : — "  Let  there  be  light." 

Exercises. 

Supply  the  comma,  the  colon,  or  semicolon,  as  they  may 
be  needed  in  the  following  sentences : 

Speak  well  of  your  friend  of  your  enemy  neither  well  nor  ill. — There' are 
three  bad  neighbors  great  rivers  great  lords  and  great  roads. — Three  things 
kill  a  man  a  scorching  sun  suppers  and  cares. — All  right  say  nothing. — Let 
us  start  ahead  business  first  and  play  afterward. — If  I  be  wicked  woe  unto 
me  and  if  I  be  righteous  yet  will  I  not  lift  up  my  head. — I  am  full  of  con- 
fusion therefore  see  thou  mine  affliction. — Great  men  are  not  always  wise 
neither  do  the  aged  understand  judgment. — He  whom  you  speak  of  is 
eminently  a  happy  man  happy  for  he  has  had  and  has  used  the  best  oppor- 
tunities to  improve  his  mind  happy  for  his  friends  are  few  and  faithful 
happy  for  his  wife  is  affectionate  happy  for  his  children  are  good  happy 
for  his  worldly  affairs  are  prosperous  happy  for  his  religious  hopes  are 
bright  and  ardent. 


LESSON   LI. 

PUNCTUATION. PERIOD;    INTERROGATION   AND   EXCLAMA- 
TION  POINTS  ;    DASH. 

Written  or  printed  language  requires  certain  points  or 
marks  to  aid  in  determining  the  sense  and  the  pronuncia- 


136  PUNCTUATION. 

tion.    Their  office  is  to  separate  sentences,  and  the  different 
parts  of  sentences. 

The  Period  ( . ),  the  Interrogation  point  ( ?  ),  and  the  Ex- 
clamation ( ! ),  and  sometimes  the  Dasli  (  —  ),  are  used  to 
indicate  the  close  of  a  sentence. 

1.  The  Period  is  used  at  the  end  of  complete  and  independent 
Declarative  Sentences  ;  the  Interrogation  Point  at  the  end  of  In- 
terrogative, and  the  Exclamation  Point  at  the  end  of  Exclamatory 
sentences,  phrases,  or  words. 

2.  The  Dash  is  generally  used  to  indicate  that  a  sentence  is  un- 
finished ;  or  to  denote  an  abrupt  and  unexpected  transition ;  or 
a  pause  in  delivery. 

Examples. — If  thou  art  he — but  oh  I  how  fallen !  This  world  was  made 
for  Caesar — but  for  Titus,  too.  Nathan  said  unto  David — Thou  art  the 
man.     Give  me  liberty,  or  give  me — death  I 

3.  The  Dash  is  placed  between  the  remarks  of  successive  speak- 
ers in  a  dialogue. 

4.  The  Dash  is  sometimes  used  instead  of  a  parenthesis. 
§.  It  is  improperly  used  after  a  complete  sentence. 

6.  The  Period  is  used  after  abbreviations  ;  as,  B.  D.,  A.  M.,  Ex. 
It  is  also  used  after  a  signature,  a  date,  and  at  the  end  of  a  book, 
chapter,  section,  &c. 

7.  Where  a  question  is  not  ashed.,  hut  it  is  only  said  that  a  ques- 
tion had  heen  ashed.,  the  Interrogation  point  is  not  to  he  employ- 
ed ;  as,  "Pilate  asked  whether  Christ  was  a  king."  In  such  cases 
the  period  is  proper.  But  if  the  sentence  were,  "  Pilate  asked, 
Art  thou  a  king?"  then  the  Interrogation  point  is  necessary. 

Exercises. 

Supply  the  points  that  are  requisite  : 

Therefore  they  say  unto  God  Depart  from  us  for  we  desire  not  the 
knowledge  of  thy  ways— What  is  the  Almighty  that  we  should  serve  him— 
How  excellent  is  thy  loving  kindness  0  God— Men  will  wrangle  for  religion 
write  for  It  fight  for  it  die  for  it  any  thing  but  live  for  it — Three  hours  said 
t?lic  and  not  send  for  me— I  was  only  in  the  village — Did  nc  one  tell  you— 
Yes  but  you  know  it  is  not  my  way  to  make  >a  fuss  an^l  to  put  people 
oul—IIow  could  I  tell— Mighty  fine 


PUNCTUATION. REMAINING   MARKS.  137 


LESSON  HI. 

PUNCTUATION. — REMAINING   MARKS. 

Tlie  Parenthesis  (  ),  includes  a  clause  or  remark  not 
essential  to  the  sentence  in  construction,  but  explanatory, 
and  introducing  some  important  idea.  It  may  be  altogether 
omitted,  without  impairing  the  grammatical  structure  of 
the  sentence. 

By  modern  writers,  tlie  comma  or  the  dash  is  used  instead  of  thi- 
parenthesis. 

*'  Know  then  this  truth  (enough  lor  man  to  know), 
Virtue,  alone,  is  happiness  below."  Pope. 

'*  To  gain  a  posthumous  reputation,  is  to  save  four  or  five  letters  (for 
what  is  a  name  besides?)  from  oblivion." 

If  the  parenthetical  or  incidental  clause  is  shorty  or  perfectly 
coincides  with  tlie  rest  of  the  sentence^  the  comma  is  to  he  preferred 
to  the  parenthetical  marlcs.     Thus  : 

"  Speak  you,  who  saw,  his  wonders  in  the  deep  ;"  not,  "  Speak  you 
(who  saw)  his  wonders  in  the  deep."  "  He  found  them  asleep  again,  for 
their  eyes  were  heavy,  neither  knew  they  what  to  answer  him ;"  not  (for 
their  eyes  were  heavy). 

When  the  words  in  the  parenthesis  are  interrogative  or  exclam- 
atory, the  marks  of  parenthesis  should  be  used,  rather  than  the 
comma  or  dash. 

*'  It  was  represented  by  an  analogy  (Oh,  how  inadequate !)  which  *vap 
borrowed  from  Paganism." 

Maries  of  Quotation  are  used  at  the  beginning  and  end  of  a 
phrase,  clause,  or  sentence  containing  the  exact  words  of  an  author 
or  speaker.  They  consist  of  two  inverted  and  of  two  direct  com- 
mas ;  e.  ^.,  Jesus  said,  '^I  am  the  Resurrection  and  the  Life." 

Sometimes  a  quoted  passage  contains  a  quotation^  in  which 
case  the  latter  is  distinguished  by  a  single  inverted  and  direct 
comma. 


138  DIVISION   INTO    PARAGRAPHS. 

The  ApostropTie  ( ' )  is  used  to  shorten  a  word ;  as,  tho'  for 
though ;  'tis,  for  it  is ;  e'en  for  even.  The  same  character  ex- 
presses the  possessive  case  of  nouns.     The  man's  horse. 

The  Hyphen  ( - )  connects  the  parts  of  compound  words  ;  as, 
steam-whistle.  It  is  also  used  at  the  end  of  a  line  to  connect  the 
preceding  syllable  with  the  first  on  the  following  line,  where  a 
word  is  divided. 

The  Caret  (a)  indicates  that  the  word  or  words  placed  over  it 
have  been  omitted,  and  mu<5t  be  understood  as  filling  the  place 

from  city 
which  it  occupies ;  as,  He  went  to  city. 

A 

Brackets  [  ]  inclose  some  explanatory  remark  or  phrase,  som« 
word  or  sentence  to  supply  a  deficiency  or  to  guard  against  mis- 
take. 

The  Ellipsis  ( ),  or  ( . . . . ),  (*  *  *  )^  shows  that  some  let- 
ters of  a  name,  or  the  name  itself,  or  portion  of  a  sentence,  is 
omitted,  or  is  wanting. 

The  Brace  (f)  is  used  to  connect  certain  lines  of  poetry,  or  cer- 
tain words  as  falling  under  a  common  term. 

The  Asterisk  (*),  and  the  characters  ( t  |  || ),  refer  to  notes  in  the 
margin.  Sometimes  figures  or  small  letters  are  used  for  the  same 
purpose. 

Division  into  Paragraphs. 

It  adds  much  to  the  pleasure  of  reading  what  is  written,  when, 
by  a  proper  arrangement  of  sentences  into  groups,  or  paragraphs, 
the  transition  to  a  new  branch  of  ihe  subject  is  made  clearly  to 
appear  by  commencing  on  a  new  line.  In  letter- writing,  a  proper 
division  into  paragraphs  is  a  great  beauty  and  utility. 

Diff^erent  subjects  require  different  divisions  of  the  page,  or  par- 
agraphs, unless  they  occupy  but  a  very  small  space,  and  follow 
each  other  in  rapid  succession. 

When  a  single  subject  occupies  much  space,  the  larger  divisions 
of  it  should  form  separate  paragraphs,  each  of  these  closing  with 
sentiments  of  peculiar  importance. 

In  argumentative  writing,  the  several  premises  and  conclusions 
of  a  subject  will  properly  form  separate  paragraphs.  If  the  state- 
ment of  these,  however,  should  extend  over  much  ground,  it  may 
be  convenient  to  subdivide  them  into  more  numerous  paragraphs. 


EXERCISES   IN   PUNCTUATION.  139 


Exercises. 
The  wliole  race  of  man  except  Noah  and  his  family  is  recorded 
to  have  perished  by  the  great  flood. — The  whole  race  of  man 
Noah  and  his  family  being  recorded  exceptions  perished  in  one 
great  flood  which  changed  the  state  of  the  globe  that  we  inhabit. — 
The  whole  race  of  man  we  all  know  that  Noah  and  his  fam- 
ily were  saved  perished  in  one  great  flood  which  changed  the 
state  of  the  globe  that  we  inhabit. — Henry  the  Second  of  Eng- 
land except  in  his  celebrated  quarrel  with  Thomas  k  Becket 
was  a  pmdent  and  prosperous  king. — Henry  the  Second  exclud- 
ing perhaps  his  quarrel  with  Thomas  k  Becket  was  a  prudent 
and  prosperous  king. — Henry  the  Second  before  I  complete  my 
assertion  I  must  perhaps  exclude  his  quarrel  with  Thomas  k 
Becket  was  a  prudent  and  prosperous  king. — My  friend  had 
not  a  book  except  the  Bible  in  any  part  of  .his  house. — My 
friend  had  not  a  book  I  do  not  mean  to  say  he  was  without  a 
Bible  in  any  part  of  his  house. — Five  years  of  scarcity  with 
the  exception  of  one  average  season  were  followed  by  ten  of 
plenty. — Five  years  of  scarcity  I  know  that  one  of  them  might 
be  called  an  average  season  were  followed  by  ten  of  plenty. — 
The  world  says  Shakspeare  is  still  deceived  with  ornament. — 
Shakspeare  warns  us  that  the  world  is  still  deceived  with 
ornament. — He  said  that  they  had  quite  forgotten  the  truth. — 
The  words  he  used  were  these  They  have  quite  forgotten  the 
truth. — Bacon  tells  us  that  knowledge  is  power. — Knowledge 
is  power  says  the  great  Lord*Bacon. — Take  care  of  the  pence 
says  some  noted  economist  and  the  pounds  will  take  care  of 
themselves. — Some  noted  economist  advises  people  to  take  care 
of  the  pence  for  says  he  the  pounds  will  take  care  of  themselves.— 
Oh  save  my  country  were  the  dying  words  of  William  Pitt. — See 
said  Addison  on  his  death  bed  to  a  profligate  young  nobleman  see 
in  what  peace  a  Christian  can  die. — Socrates  on  being  asked  what 
man  approached  the  nearest  to  perfect  happiness  answered  That 
man  who  has  the  fewest  wfints. — When  Socrates  was  asked  this 
question  What  man  approaches  the  nearest  to  perfect  happiness 4 
he  pronounced  in  favor  of  him  who  has  the  fewest  wants. 


140  SENTENCE-BUILDING. 

LESSON  LIII. 

SENTENCE-BUILDING. 

Starting  with  the  two  words,  Themistocles  persuaded^  a 
long  sentence  may  be  built  upon  them  by  various  enlarge- 
ments. 

Themistocles— ^^c?  an  a2)positional  phrase:  Themistocles  the  Athenian — 
Modify  Athenian:  Themistocles,  the  distinguished  Athenian — Themis- 
tocles the  distinguished  Athenian  general — Add  a  participial  clause :  per- 
ceiving no  hope — perceiving  that  there  was  no  hope— perceiving  that  there 
was  no  longer  any  hope — Add  a  prepositional  phrase :  of  preserving  Attica 
— Prefix  a  prepositional  phrase :  after  the  arrival  of  the  Grecian  fleet — Add 
a  prepositional  phrase :  at  Salamis — Enlarge  the  predicate  hy  adding  an  ob- 
ject: persuaded  the  Athenians — Add  an  infinitive  clause:  to  betake  them- 
selves— Add  prepositional  phrases :  for  refuge — to  their  ships — according  to 
the  interpretation  he  had  formerly  given — of  the  oracle — of  Apollo — Add  a 
relative  clause :  which  promised  them  safety — Add  a  prepositional  phrase ; 
behind  their  wooden  walls. 

The  sentence  thus  constructed  becomes  the  following : 

After  the  arrival  of  the  Grecian  fleet  at  Salamis,  Themistocles,  the  dis- 
tinguished Athenian  general,  perceiving  that  there  was  no  longer  any 
hope  of  preserving  Attica,  persuaded  the  Athenians  to  betake  themselves 
for  refuge  to  their  ships,  according  to  the  interpretation  he  had  formerly 
given  of  the  oracle  of  Apollo,  which  promised  them  safety  behind  their 
wooden  walls. 

Another  example : 
Veneration  gave  influence. 

Modify  the  subject  by  an  adjective  and  an  article :  The  high  veneration — 
Modify  the  subject  by  a  prepositional  clause :  in  which  the  Delphic  oraclo 

was  held — 
Modify  the  predicate  by  an  indirect  object :  gave  its  directors — 
Modify  the  direct  object  by  an  adjective  and  article :  a  large  share — 
Modify  the  object  further  by  prepositional  phrases :  of  influence — in  public 

affairs — 
Modify  it  further  by  an  appositional  clause: — an  influence  which  they 

sometimes  exerted  in  a  most  commendable  manner — 
Modfy  this  appositional  clause  by  a  j^repositional  clause :  in  sanctioning 

and  furthering  the  schemes  of  the  statesmen,  legislators,  and  warriors — 
Modify  further  by  a  ?'elative  clause  :  who  undertook  to  improve  the  politi 

Cil  systems,  reform  laws  and  manners,  or  defend  the  liberties  of  Greece, 


SENTENCES    VARIED   IN    STRUCTURE.  141 

The  sentence  completed  stands  thus: 

The  high  veneration  in  which  the  Delphic  oracle  was  held,  gave  its  di- 
rectors a  large  share  of  influence  in  public  affairs ;  an  influence  which  thoy 
sometimes  exerted  in  a  most  commendable  manner  in  sanctioning  and 
furtliering  the  schemes  of  the  statesmen,  legislators,  and  warriors  who  un- 
dertook to  improve  the  political  systems,  reform  laws  and  manners,  or  de- 
fend the  liberties  of  Greece. 

Exercises. 

Write  out,  in  a  similar  manner,  an  analysis  or  process  of 
construction  of  the  following  sentences. 

1.  It  might  indeed  be  shown,  in  a  great  variety  of  instances,  some  of  an 
indifferent,  and  others  of  a  moral  nature,  that  being  accustomed  to  a  thing, 
induces,  for  the  most  part,  such  a  settled  habit  as  is  aptly  denominated  a 
second  nature. 

2.  An  account  of  these  disturbances  reached  England  early  in  1774,  but  it 
only  incensed  the  government  so  much  the  more  against  the  colonies,  and 
made  them  so  much  more  resolute  in  the  determination  to  punish  them 
for  their  insolence. 


LESSON  LIV. 

SENTENCES   VARIED    IN   STRUCTURE. 

This  may  be  effected  in  several  methods. 

1.  By  changing  a  verb  into  a  participle  ;  as, 

When  the  mail  arrived,  I  received  a  letter.  The  mail  having  arrived^  I 
received  a  letter. 

Sentences  containing  two  or  more  assertions  which  are  con- 
nected by  the  conjunction  and^  may  thus  be  advantageously 
varied;  as, 

The  boys  ma7/  study  for  an  hour,  and  then  take  a  recess.  The  boys  Jiav- 
ing  studied  an  hour,  may  then  take  ^  recess. 

2.  By  using  a  noun  in  place  of  an  infinitive  ;  as. 
He  sought  to  he  learned.    He  sought  learning. 

3.  By  using  the  infinitive  mood  in  place  of  a  conjunctive  clause, 
or  a  conjunctive  clause  in  place  of  an  infinitive  mood ;  as. 

It  is  important  that  one  he  prepared  fm^  all  events.  It  is  important  to  he 
prepared  for  all  events. 


142  SENTENCES   VARIED    IN    STRUCTURE. 

4.  By  changing  a  verb  into  a  verb  and  an  adjective,  or  parti ci 
pie ;  as, 

He  nms. — He  is  running.    He  fears  death.     He  is  afraid  to  die. 

5.  Adverbs  may  be  changed  for  adverbial  clauses,  and  the  re- 
verse ;  as, 

He  recited  his  lesson  correctly.    He  recited  his  lesson  in  a  correct  manner. 

Exercises. 

Vary  the  construction  in  the  following  sentences  accord- 
ing to  the  methods  just  stated : 

He  aimed  to  be  wise. — There  are  two  modes  of  establishing  our  reputa- 
tion ;  to  be  praised  by  honest  men,  and  to  be  abused  by  rogues. — When 
the  procession  reached  me  I  was  highly  gratified. — The  ship  advances  to- 
wards port. — The  girls  may  learn  their  lessons  and  then  take  a  long  walk 
and  enjoy  the  society  of  their  friends. — He  expects  that  he  will  be  sick, 
— Gladly  and  heartily  did  he  receive  my  gift. 


LESSON  LV. 

SENTENCES   VARIED   IN   STRUCTURE, 

Other  methods  of  varying  the  structure  are  these  . 

1.  Change  adjectives  or  'participles  into  relative  claicses^  and 
the  reverse  ;  as, 

The  vme  man  prepares  for  future  events.    The  man  who  is  wise,  pre- 
pares, &c. 

2.  Change  adjectives  into  prepositional  phrases,  and  the  reverse  : 
The  pious  man  loves  to  pray.    The  man  of  piety  loves  to  pray. 

3.  Change  transitive  sentences  into  the  passive  form,  with  a  prep- 
ositional phrase  ;  as, 

Milton  wrote  Paradise  Lost.     Paradise  Lost  was  written  by  Miltoii. 
The  reverse,  also,  of  this  process  may  be  practised. 

4.  Change  adjective  or  participial  clauses  into  adverhial  ^  as, 
The  man,  blind  to  his  true  interest^  disregarded  my  counsel.     The  man, 


ABRIDGMENT    AND    OMISSION    OF   CLAUSES.  143 

since  (or  because)  he  was  blind  to  Ms  true  interest^  disregarded  my  counsel. 
The  sun  rising^  the  clouds  disperse.  When  the  sun  rises^  the  clouds  dis- 
perse. 

Exercises. 

Make  these  changes  in  the  sentences  that  follow : 

The  good  and  upright  man  detests  fraud. — The  patriotic  man  scorns  a 
biibo,  and  is  faithful  to  the  interests  of  his  country. — Campbell  wrote  tho 
*•  Pleasures  of  Hope." — The  artist,  intent  on  securing  a  high  reputation, 
shrunk  not  from  the  severest  toil. — Clay  was  rivalled  by  Webster.^— A  man 
of  genuine  wit  is  not  often  found. 


LESSON  LVI. 

SENTENCES   VARIED    BY    ABRIDGMENT   AND    OMISSION    OF 
CLAUSES. 

Abridge  the  following  sentences  by  omitting  such  clauses 
as  are  least  important,  and  by  abridging  the  form  of  others, 
according  to  the  following  methods ; 

1.  Change  the  adverhial  or  conjunctive  clause  to  an  absolute  or 
independent  clause  ;  as, 

When  the  teacher  arrived^  the  class  engaged  in  study.  The  teacher  arriv- 
ing^ the  class,  &c. 

2.  When  the  subjects  of  a  sentence  are  the  same^  omit  all  but  one^ 
in  changing  the  adverbial  clauses  into  participial ;  as, 

When  I  came  to  the  place,  and  saw  the  desolation,  I  was  pained.  Com- 
ing to  the  place,  and  seeing  the  desolation,  I  was  pained. 

3.  Clauses  may  be  abridged  somewhat,  by  using  the  verbal 
noun,  or  the  infinitive,  instead  of  the  conjunctive  clause;  as, 

He  afS.rmed  that  he  was  sick,  and  that  this  was  the  cause  of  his  absence. 
He  affirmed  his  being  sick  as  the  cause  of  his  absence.  He  expressed  a  wish 
that  he  might  have  a  vacation.     He  expressed  a  wish  to  have  a  vacation. 

4.  Relative  clauses  may  be  abridged  by  changing  the  verb  into 
the  participle ;  as. 

The  man,  who  approached  the  house,  excited  terror.  The  man,  approach' 
ing  the  house,  excited  terror. 


144  EQUIVALENT   MODES    OF   EXPRESSION. 

5.  In  objective  clauses,  commencing  with  which^  wTiat^  whoni^ 
wJiere^  wliei\  how^  and  the  like,  the  verbs  may  be  changed  to  the 
infinitive  form;  as, 

He  knows  when  he  should  go  to  church.  He  knows  when  to  go  to  church. 
Do  you  understand  what  yon  should  do?    Do  you  understand  what  to  do  ? 

Exercises. 

When  I  came  to  the  shore  I  was  greatly  disappointed  to  find  that  the 
boats  were  all  gone. — When  the  Veientines  found  that  the  fates  were  about 
to  be  fulfilled,  they  sent  messengers  to  ask  for  peace. — He  put  his  hand  in 
his  side  pocket,  and  drew  out  a  quantity  of  papers,  neatly  arranged,  tied, 
and  indorsed. — To  punish  those  islands  which  had  sided  with  Xerxes,  was 
a  natural  and  justifiable  act.— He  decided  that  he  would  study  Greek.— The 
boy  ^  ho  entered  the  cars  brought  me  the  lost  package. — He  was  in  great 
perplexity  what  he  should  do. 


LESSON  LVII. 

EQUIVALENT   MODES    OF   EXPEESSION. 

These  may  be  made  by  two  processes  ;  by  expanding,  or 
by  contracting,  the  words,  phrases,  or  clauses  in  question. 
By  frequent  exercises  of  this  kind,  a  command  of  language 
may  be  attained,  that  is  eminently  desirable  in  a  writer. 

Example— m  the  way  of  expanding.— Godliness,  with  contentment,  is 
great  gain.  To  be  godly,  and  to  be  contented,  is  great  gain.  To  possess 
a  godly  temper,  in  connection  with  a  contented  disposition,  affords  great 
advantages  and  blessings.  The  possessor  of  godliness  and  contentment, 
in  these  very  traits  of  character,  has  sources  of  the  most  inexhaustible  hap- 
piness. 

Example — in  the  way  of  contracting. — That  one  should  betray  his  coun- 
try, is  a  violation  of  most  sacred  obligations.  The  betrayal  of  one's  coun- 
try, violates  most  sacred  obligations.  To  betray  one's  country,  is  a  most 
culpable  act.  Treachery  towards  country  is  a  high  crime.  A  traitor  is  a 
great  criminal.  ^ 

Exercises. 

1.  Expand  the  following  sentences,  without  altering  the 
sense  materially. 
Humility  is  the  road  to  perfection  and  happiness. — Procrastination  ifi 


TRANSPOSrnON    OF   CLAUSES.  145 

the  thief  of  time. — Guard  well  thy  thought :  our  thoughts  are  h«ard  in 
heaven. — A  perpetuity  of  bliss  is  bliss. 

2.  Contract  the  following  sentences  without  materially 
altering  the  sense  : 

There  was  no  one  of  the  household  who  took  so  deep  an  interest  in  the 
progress  of  the  campaign  then  going  on  in  Picardy,  as  Charles,  himself. 
He  listened  to  the  dispatches  with  great  attention,  inquiring  whether  there 
was  nothing  further,  and  frequently  causing  them  to  be  read  to  him  more 
than  once. — Indeed,  Philip,  however  attentive  he  may  have  been  to  the 
wishes  and  wants  of  his  father  in  other  respects,  cannot  be  acquitted  oi'  a 
degree  of  negligence  amounting  almost  to  ingratitude,  in  not  furnishing 
him  with  the  information  which  he  so  much  coveted  in  respect  to  the 
course  of  public  events. 

3.  Sentences  may  be  expanded  by  giving  a  reason  for 
what  is  asserted.     Proceed  in  this  way  with  the  following: 

1.  A  time  of  war  should  be  a  time  of  mourning. 

2.  Even  a  victory  is  suited  to  shock  the  mind. 
8.  Men  should  be  hospitable  to  one  another. 

4.  The  Sabbath  is  not  a  proper  day  for  amusementa. 

5.  Be  a  close  observer. 

6.  Let  time  be  greatly  valued. 

7.  Be  careful  what  associations  you  form. 

8.  Men  esteemed  good  are  not  always  good. 

9.  Knowledge  should  be  desired  for  its  own  sake. 
10.  It  is  wrong  to  spend  time  on  worthless  reading. 


LESSON  LVIII. 

SENTENCES   VARIED   BY   TRANSPOSITION   OF   WORDS   ANl, 
CLAUSES. 

Model, 

History  proposes  much  more  than  she  can  accomplish,  when  she 
undertakes  to  trace  the  progress  of  mankind  throughout  every 
age,  without  interruption  or  omission. 

Period  dividing  at  accomplish  into  verb  and  adverb. 

When  history  undertakes,  (fee,  she  proposes,  &o. 

Period  dividing  into  adverb  and  verb 


146  TRANSPOSITION    OF   CLAUSES. 

History,  when  she  undertakes,  &c.,  proposes,  &c. 

Period  dividing  into  nominative  and  verb. 

The  progress  of  mankind,  without  interruption  or  omission, 
throughout  every  age,  when  liistory  undertakes  to  trace  it,  is  a 
])urpose  which  embraces  mucli  more  than  history  can  possibly 
nccomplisli. 

Another,  and  less  ehgible  arrangement,  of  the  period  dividing  Into  nom- 
native  and  verb. 

The  progress  of  mankind,  without  interruption  or  omission, 
when  history  undertakes  to  trace  it,  she  proposes,  &o. 

Another  arrangement  of  the  period  dividing  into  adverb  and  verb. 

[The  term  adverb  is  here,  and  in  some  subsequent  lessons,  taken  in  an 
unusually  large  sense.  As  in  every  complete  construction  the  verb  is  the 
absorbing  part  of  speech,  so  every  other  part  of  speech  in  immediate  con- 
nection with  the  mrl^  is,  in  a  large  application  of  the  term,  an  adverb,  Thia 
enlarged  application  of  the  term  is  not  designed,  however,  to  set  aside  the 
nsual  grammatical  distinctions.] 

Exercises. 

Transpose  the  following  sentences,  according  to  the 
above  Model : 

Though  there  may  appear,  to  the  narrow  or  biased  view  of  human 
reason,  an  original  inequality  in  the  good  and  evil  distributed  to  men,  we 
may  be  sure,  relying  on  Divine  justice,  that  such  inequality  is  apparent 
only,  and  not  real. 

If  we  did  not  mingle  the  gall  of  envy,  or  the  turbid  waters  of  strife,  or 
the  poison  of  concupiscence,  or  other  evil  matter,  in  the  current  of  our 
daily  thought ;  life,  though  perhaps  not  uniformly  sweet,  would  not  seem 
so  miserable  an  endowment  as,  by  too  many,  it  is  felt  to  be. 

While  we  are  complaining  of  the  injustice,  the  unkindness,  the  treachery, 
the  ingratitude  of  others,  we  seldom  look  at  our  own  conduct,  or  weigh 
our  own  actions  and  expressions,  in  order  to  discover  how  far  the  same 
charges  may  not  fairly  be  brought  against  ourselves. 

Bringing  to  every  subject  of  inquiry  or  examination,  a  mind  naturally 
cl'iur ;  and  applying  his  faculties  with  a  perseverance  that  no  difficulty 
conld  tire,  and  no  disappointment  turn  aside;  the  immortal  Newton  ad- 
vanced to  heights  of  scientific  discovery,  which  no  previous  philosopher 
had  attained,  and  perhaps  none  would  have  reached  since,  if  be  had  not 
led  the  way  and  made  it  plain. 


SENTENCES  CONSTRUCTED.  147 

LESSON  LIX. 

SENTENCES    CONSTEUCTED   FROM   GIVEN   WORDS. 

Select  four  or  five  words,  and  construct  sentences,  eacli 
of  which  shall  contain  all  the  words,  and  make  good  and 
complete  sense  ;  as  in  the  following  examples,  from  the 
words  Life^  Vtrtue,  Reward^  Honor, 

1.  A  life  oi  virtue  will  seldom  fail  in  giving  its  true  reward— honor. 

2.  The  man  who  devotes  his  life  to  the  service  of  virtue  will  often  find 
honor  his  only  reward  in  this  life. 

8.  He  who  gives  due  honxyr  to  virtue  in  this  life  will  assuredly  receive  his 
reward, 

4.  To  live  a  life  of  virtue  is  the  only  means  of  obtaining  r^ijoard  or  honor. 

5.  A  Ufe  of  virtue  is  accompanied  by  the  reward  of  a  good  conscience  and 
the  hmor  of  all  men. 

Exercises. 

1.  Character. — Morals.— Soul. — Man. 

2.  Resolution.— Sense. — Persons.— Interests. 

3.  Duty.— Conscience. — Sacred. — Them. 

4.  Life. — Superfluity. — Complain. — Short. 

5.  Children. — Think. — Themselves. — Exert. 

6.  Persons. — Care. — Above.— Below. 

7.  Shame. — Cheeks. — Vices.— Sense. 

8.  Secret. — Happily. — True. — Living. 

9.  To-day.— Put  off.— Do.— Till. 


LESSON    LX. 

SENTENCES    PERIODIC   AND   NON-PERIODIC. 

A  non-periodic,  or  loose  sentence,  is  composed  of  two  or 
more  sentences  loosely  put  together,  and  is  adapted  to  the 
colloquial  style.  A  periodic  sentence  is  composed  of  parts 
mutually  dependent  in  construction  ;  that  is  to  say,  of  parts 
grammatically  requiring  other  parts  either  before  or  aftci' 


148  SKNTENCES    PERIODIC    AND    NON-PERIODIC. 

to  correspond  with  them.  This  latter  kind  of  sentence 
abounds  in  elevated  and  elegant  discourse  or  writing.  The 
capacity  to  frame  either  kind  of  sentence  at  will,  is  indis- 
pensable to  a  full  command  of  language ;  and  such  capacity 
should  be  diligently  sought  to  be  acquired.  An  exclusive 
attention  to  the  one  or  the  other  is  inexpedient. 

The  French  critics  distinguish  the  style  of  writing  referred  to 
above,  into  style  periodique  and  style  coupe.  In  the  former,  the 
sentences  are  composed  of  several  members  linked  together,  and 
so  hanging  upon  one  another  that  the  sense  of  the  whole  is  not 
understood  till  the  close.  This  style  of  writing  is  showy,  digni- 
fied, musical,  and  oratorical,  as  in  the  following  sentence  of  Sir 
William  Temple : 

"  If  you  look  about  you,  and  consider  the  lives  of  others  as  well  as  your 
own  ;  if  you  think  how  few  are  born  with  honor,  and  how  many  die  with- 
out name  or  children  ;  how  little  beauty  we  see,  and  how  few  friends  we 
hear  of;  how  many  diseases,  and  how  much  poverty  there  is  in  the  world ; 
you  will  fall  down  upon  your  knees,  and,  instead  of  repining  at  one  afflic- 
tion, will  admire  so  many  blessings  which  you  have  received  from  the 
liand  of  God." 

The  style  coupe^  consists  of  short,  independent  propositions, 
each  complete  within  itself,  and  making  full  sense:  thus  Mr.  Pope 
writes  in  the  following  passage — 

*'  I  confess  it  was  want  of  consideration  that  made  me  an  author.  I 
wrote  because  it  amused  me.  I  corrected,  because  it  was  as  pleasant  to 
me  to  correct  as  to  write.  I  published,  because  I  was  told  I  might  plea&e 
such  as  it  was  a  credit  to  please." 

The  style  periodique  gives  an  air  of  dignity  and  gravity  to  com 
position  ;  the  style  coupe  is  more  lively  and  striking,  and  is  suited 
to  gay  and  easf  subjects.     In  almost  every  kind  of  composition 
an  intermixture  of  both  styles  is  preferable  to  the  predominance 
of  either. 

Perhaps  a  more  just  division  of  style  is  into  three  varieties,  the 
Colloquial^  the  Middle^  and  the  High  Style.,  all  of  which,  how- 
ever, may  occur  in  the  same  essay,  letter,  or  discourse.  An  ex- 
ample of  each  of  these  will  now  be  given : 

Cdhquial  Style .  "  Let  us  compare  man  with  other  animals ;  is  he  not  a 
won  lerful  piece  of  work?     His  powers  of  reason,  chiefly,  make  him  so, 


PROTASIS    AND   AP0D0SI8.  149 

for  *inde»id  they  aie  infinite ;  they  shine  through  his  form,  and  speak  in  all 
his  movements.  Surely,  he  is  more  than  a  mere  animal;  we  may  almost 
nay  he  is  an  angel,  or  a  god." 

Middle  Style:  "  Man,  noble  in  reason,  infinite  in  faculties,  in  form  and 
jiioving  express  and  admirable,  in  action  like  an  angel,  in  apprehensicn 
like  a  god,  is  a  wonderful  piece  of  work." 

High  Style:  *'  What  a  piece  of  work  is  man  !  how  noble  in  reason  !  how 
infinite  in  faculties !  in  form  and  movmg,  how  express  and  admirable  !  in 
action,  how  like  an  angel !  in  apprehension,  how  like  a  god  ! — Shahspeare* 

A  Period  means  a  circle,  and  it  is  therefore  applied  to  that 
kind  of  sentence  of  which  the  parts  are  grammatically  dependent 
tliroughoiit.  The  former  part  of  a  period^  corresponding  to  the 
semicircle  which  begins  the  circle,  is  called  the  Protasis;  the  lat- 
ter^ corresponding  to  tlie  semicircle  which  completes  it,  is  called 
the  Apodosis.  In  the  logical  period,  the  Protasis  is  a  nominative 
of  the  third  person  (or  the  subject),  and  the  Apodosis  is  the  verb 
agreeing  with  it  (or  the  Predicate);  e.  g.  "Thy  seed — shall  be 
as  the  stars."  Every  other  form  of  period  may  be  considered  a 
rhetorical  form ;  e.  g.   "  As  the  stars,  so  shall  thy  seed  be." 

In  the  short  sentence.  ''Light  appeared,"  "light"  is  the  Prota- 
sis, and  "appeared"  is  the  Apodosis.  A  period,  even  without 
taking  a  figurative  character,  does  not  always  have  for  its  prota- 
sis and  a[)odosis  a  logical  nominative  and  its  corresponding  verb. 
One  of  those  parts  must  indeed  always  be  an  incomplete  verb, 
but  the  other  which  completes  it,  may  have  the  character  of  an 
adverb,  or  an  adjective,  or  a  noun-objective,  or  a  verb  infinitive; 
as  in  the  following  brief  models : 

"  Suddenly  appeared — ligliV^ 
"  Grateful  was — the — ligMy 
"  It — dissipated  the — darkness^ 
"It — helped  to— enliven — a//," 


LESSON  LXI. 

NON-PERIODIC   AND   PEKIODIO   SE>iTENCEfcj. 

The  following  materials  are  quoted,  to  be  formed  mto  a 
Period,  which  may  take  any  of  the  forms  presented  in  the 


J  50  PKKIODIC   SENTENCES. 

last  lesson,  beginning  with  the  form  in  which  the  Protasis 
and  Apodosis  are  a  nominative  and  its  verb.  The  materi- 
als furnished  are,  as  will  be  observed,  in  the  Colloquial 
style,  being  distributed  into  several  sentences : 

Some  people  think  it  a  merit  to  be  gloomy.  Another  part  of  their 
charaf'iter,  is  intolerance  of  all  opinion  and  practice  dilfering  from  their 
own,.  Moreover,  they  refuse  to  join  with  others  in  pleasure,  while,  in  their 
solitary  enjoyments,  they  transgress  the  bounds  of  temperance  without 
scruple.  They  have  charity  in  their  professions  ;  but  they  rail  habitually 
against  their  neighbors,  and  eagerly  spread  tales  to  their  prejudice.  We 
are  surely  justitied  in  saying  that  such  people  cannot  rightly  arrogate  for 
themselves  alone  the  epithet  religious.  They  may  not  be  shut  out  from 
the  favor  and  the  mercy  of  heaven  ;  but  if  not,  neither  will  the  same  ben- 
efits be  denied  to  those  who  refuse  to  join  their  sect  or  party. 

1.  Period  whose  protasis  and  apodosis  are  logical  nominative 
and  logical  verb. 

PeopU  who  think  it  a  merit  to  be  gloomy  ;  who  are  intolerant  of  all 
opinion  and  practice  differing  from  their  own ;  who  refuse  to  join  with 
others  in  pleasure,  while  they  transgress,  without  scruple,  the  bounds  of 
temperance  in  their  solitary  enjoyments ;  who,  with  charity  in  their  profes- 
sion, habitually  rail  against  their  neighbors,  and  eagerly  spread  tales  to 
their  prejudice,  are  surely  not  entitled  to  arrogate  for  themselves  alone  the 
epithet  religious^  or  to  believe  that  they  who  join  them  not^  are  excluded  from 
the  favor  and  the  mercy  of  heaven. 

2.  Period  whose  protasis  and  apodosis  are  logical  adverh  and 
logical  verb. 

When  people  think  it  a  merit  to  be  gloomy ;  when  they  are  intolerant  of 
all  opinion  and  practice  differing  from  their  own  ;  when  they  refuse  to  join 
with  others  in  pleasure,  while  they  transgress,  without  scruple,  the  bounds 
of  temperance  in  their  solitary  enjoyments ;  ivhen,  with  charity  in  their 
professions,  they  habitually  rail  against  their  neighbors,  and  eagerly 
spread  tales  to  their  prejudice:  they  are  surely  not  entitled  to  arrogate  fot 
themselves  alone  the  epithet  religious .^  or  to  believe  that  they  who  join  them  noty 
are  excluded  from  the  favor  and  the  mercy  of  heaven. 

3.  Period  whose  protasis  and  apodosis  are  logical  adjective  and 
logical  verb. 

Gloomy  of  mind,  and  making  merit  of  their  gloom  ;  intolerant  of  all  opin- 
ion and  practice  differing  from  their  own  ;  refusing  to  join  with  others  in 
pleasure,  while  they  transgress,  without  scruple,  the  bounds  of  temper- 
ance in  their  solitary  enjoyments  ;  professing  charity,  yet  habitually  rail 
ing  against  their  neighbors,  and  eagerly  spreading  tales  to  their  prejudice 


PERIODIC    SENTENCES.  151 

these  are  people  whc^  surely  without  any  just  title,  arrogate  for  tliemselvos 
alone  the  epithet  religious ;  and  believe  that  they  who  join  them  not,  are 
excluded  from  the  favor  and  the  mercy  of  heaven. 

4.  Period  whose  protasis  and  apodosis  are  logical  verb  and  logi- 
cal adjective. 

People  too  often  manifest,  as  the  fruits  of  their  religion,  while  they  un- 
warrantably claim  for  themselves  alone  the  epithet  religious,  and  believe 
that  all  are  excluded  from  heaven's  favor  and  mercy  who  join  them  not,  a 
wilful  and.  as  they  think,  a  rneriiorious  gloom  ;  an  intolerance  of  all  opinion 
and  practice  differing  from  their  own  ;  a  repugnance  to  join  with  others  in 
pleasure,  ichile  they  transgress^  without  scruple^  the  hounds  of  temperance  in 
their  solitary  enjoyments  ;  and  a  hahit,  notwithstanding  their  professed  char- 
ity, of  railing  against  their  neighbors^  and  of  eagerly  spreading  tales  to  tJteir 
prejudice. 

5.  Period  whose  protasis  and  apodosis  are  logical  rerh  and  logi- 
cal infinitive. 

It  does  not  prove  that  people  have  an  exclusive  claim  to  the  epithet  reli- 
gious, and  are,  warranted  in  believing  that  all  are  shut  out  from  heaven's 
favor  and  mercy  who  join  them  not,  to  enfold  themselves  in  gloom.,  and  thinh 
the  gloom  meritorious  ;  to  he  intolerant  of  all  opinion  and  practice  differing 
from  their  oivn;  to  refuse  all  union  with  others  in  pleasure,  while  they  trans- 
gress, without  scruple.,  the  hounds  of  temperance  in  their  solitary  enjoyments  ; 
and,  with  charity  in  their  professions,  to  rail  hahituaUy  against  their  neigh- 
bors, and  eagerly  spread  tales  to  their  prejudice. 


LESSON   LXII. 

FORMATION    OF    PERIODIC    SENTENCES. 

Form  the  materials  of  each  of  the  folio  whig  paragraphs 
into  a  Periodic  Sentence,  the  protasis  and  apodosis  taking 
the  grammatical  character  which  the  materials  most  readi- 
ly suggest :  or  the  exercise,  though  more  difficult,  will  be 
more  improving,  if  each  paragraph  be  thrown  into  the  five 
(liiFerent  forms  of  the  Periodic  Sentence  exhibited  in  the 
preceding  lesson.  The  examples  here  given  are  not  faulty, 
if  regarded  as  specimens  of  the  Colloquial  or  plain  Style. 


152  PEKIODIC   SENTENCES. 

Model 

There  are  four  virtues,  justice,  prudence,  temperance,  and  forti- 
tade.     These  are  called  the  cardinal  virtues. 

The  same^  changed  into  different  forms  of  the  Period, 

1.  Justice,  prudence,  temperance,  and  fortitude,  are  called  the  four  car- 
dinal mrtues. 

2.  As  there  are  four  virtues  eminent  above  others,  namely,  &c.,  they  are 
called^  &c. 

8.  Eminent  above  other  virtues,  y^^s^^V^,  prudence^  temperance^  and  forti- 
tude^ are  called  the  cardinal  mrtues. 

4.  We  all  admit,  as  the  cardinal  virtues,  justice^  prudence,  temperanee, 
and  fortitude. 

5.  We  all  admit  justice,  prudence,  temperance,  and  fortitude,  to  he  tJie 
cardinal  virtues. 


Modesty  sometimes  keeps  a  person  from  making  his  way  at  first.  In 
the  end,  however,  it  is  almost  sure  to  advance  him. 

He  was  grateful  for  the  favors  lie  had  received.  Accordingly,  he  did  hid 
utmoi'it  to  serve  his  bcnefiictors  in  return. 

He  forfeited  the  reputation  he  had  gained  through  a  life  of  honorable 
toil ;  and  this,  by  one  false  step. 

There  is  a  purpose  which  every  one  should  keep  in  view.  The  purpose 
J  mean,  is,  to  gain  the  approbation  of  others,  with  the  approval  of  his  own 
lieart. 

The  sun  rolls  over  our  heads.  Foo\l  is  received  by  us,  and  rest  is  en- 
joyed.    These  daily  admonish  us  of  a  superior  and  Buperintending  power. 

No  one  can  fully  enjoy  prosperity,  who  never  experienced  adversity. 
Hence  it  follows  that  adversity  is  not  to  be  always  deemed  an  evil. 

The  too  complaisant  man  is  averse  either  to  contradict  or  to  blame.  Od 
this  account,  he  goes  along  with  the  manners  tiiat  prevail. 

My  friend  secured  at  last  the  full  rewards  of  liis  honorable  perseverance. 
These  were  the  complete  restitution  of  his  good  name ;  the  friendship  of 
all  worthy  men;  a  competent  fortune  for  himself;  and  a  fair  opening  in 
life  for  each  of  his  children. 

There  are  sure  means  of  becoming  peaceful  and  happy ;  and  I  think  I 
do  not  err  in  stating  them  to  be  these :  to  be  of  a  pure  and  humble  mind, 
to  exercise  benevolence  towards  others,  and  to  cultivate  piety  towards  God. 


The  three  kingdoms  of  nature  are  animals,  vegetables,  and  minerals.  It 
is  the  business  of  zoology  and  physiology,  of  botany,  of  geology,  and  min- 
eralogy, to  explore  these.  But  they  are  all  subject  to  the  further  examin- 
ation of  chemistry. 


THE    FORM    OF    SENTENCES.  153 

For  this  science  is  cognizant  of  the  changes  always  taking  place  in  the 
constitution  of  bodies,  whether  animal,  vegetable,  or  mineral,  and  by 
whatever  natural  agents  effected. 


LESSON  LXIII. 

CHOICE   BETWEEN   NON-PERIODIC    SENTENCES   AND   A   PEK-U 
ODIC    SENTENCE. 

From  the  throe  preceding  lessons  it  has  been  seen,  that 
a  period  properly  constructed,  raises  expectation  to  a  cer- 
tain point,  and  then  fulfils  it  by  giving  a  meaning  to  what 
precedes,  this  meaning  coming  round  with  the  close  of  the 
sentence.  The  period,  when  completed,  is  one  expression, 
with  one  meaning.  But  the  meanings  of  detached  parts 
do  not  always  readily  suggest  the  one  meaning  which  is 
necessary  to  the  perfection  of  a  period  ;  and,  therefore,  we 
have  always  to  consider,  before  we  form  parts  into  a  period, 
whether  they  are  fit  to  enter  into  such  a  structure,  or 
whether  they  had  not  better  remain  so  many  separate  sen- 
tences, or  at  least  only  so  far  united  as  to  form  what  is 
called  a  loose  or  non-periodic  sentence.  Take  the  following 
example  : 

*'  Afterwards  we  came  to  anchor,  and  they  put  me  on  shore,  when  I  was 
welcomed  by  all  my  friends,  who  received  me  with  the  greatest  kindness." 

This  is  a  loose  sentence,  having  in  it  four  subjects,  we^  they^  /,  and 
who  (the  last  referring  to  friends)^  and  four  correspondent  verbs. 
A  little  consideration  will  show  that  the  whole  may,  with  advan- 
tage, be  moulded  into  one  period,  whose  two  parts  shall  have  the 
same  grammatical  character  as  the  two  parts  of  the  following  min- 
iature model,  ''I  stayed  there f"^  namely,  verb  and  adverb,  only 
that  in  the  sustained  period,  the  verb  and  adverb  will  be  a  logical 
or  constructed  verb,  and  a  logical  or  constructed  adverb;  as, 

*'  Having  come  to  an  anchor,  1  was  put  on  shore,  when  I  vmi  welcomed  ly 
nil  my  friends^  and  received  with  tJie  greatist  Hiidriess.^^ 


154  EXERCISES   01^   SENTENCES. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  following,  though  a  period  in  consimc- 
tiori,  is  made  up  of  parts  that  do  not  yield  an  apodosis  answerable 
to  the  protasis,  and  cannot  do  so  without  great  change  in  the  or- 
der of  circumstances  by  which  the  period  comes  to  its  close. 

"  The  march  of  the  Greeks  was  through  an  uncultivated  country,  wko^e 
savage  inhabitants  fared  hardly^  having  no  other  riches  than  a  breed  of  lean 
sheep,  whosp  flesh  was  rank  and  unsavory,  by  reason  of  their  continual 
feeding  npon  sea-fish." 

Instead  of  endeavc^ring  to  re-marshal  the  apodosis  of  this  exam 
pie,  the  readiest  correction  will  be  to  reduce  the  whole  to  two  pe- 
riods;  thus, 

"  The  march  of  the  Greeks  was  through  an  uncultivated  country,  ^055e«A 
ed  by  savage  inhabitants^  whose  only  riches  was  a  breed  of  lean  sheep.   Nothing 
indeed  could  be  harder  than  the  fare  of  these  people,  the  sheep  being  not 
only  lean,  but  their  flesh  unsavory,  by  reason  of  their  continual  feeding  on 
eea-fieh." 

Exercises. 

Improve  the  style  of  the  following  paragraphs ;  either  by 
giving  the  compactness  of  a  period  to  parts  that  will  ad- 
vantageously receive  it,  or  by  reducing  to  looser  gram- 
matical union  parts  that  are  improperly  blended. 

Having  come  to  himself,  they  put  him  on  board  of  a  ship,  which  convey- 
ed him  first  to  Corinth,  and  thence  to  the  island  of  Egina. 

Desires  of  pleasure  usher  in  temptation,  and  the  growth  of  disorderly, 
pass^ions  is  forwarded. 

By  eagerness  of  temper,  and  precipitancy  of  indulgence,  men  forfeit  all 
the  advantages  which  patience  would  have  procured;  and,  by  this  means, 
the  opposite  evils  are  incurred  to  their  full  extent. 

This  prostitution  of  praise  affects  not  only  the  gross  of  mankind,  who 
take  their  notion  of  characters  from  the  learned ;  but  also  the  better  part 
must,  by  this  means,  lose  some  part  of  their  desire  of  fame,  when  they  find 
it  promiscuously  bestowed  on  the  meritorious  and  on  the  undeserving. 

The  motive  of  a  deed  is  that  which  Heaven  regards  ;  it  does  not  regard 
its  outward  character. 

It  is  not  by  being  present  in  scenes  of  dissipation,  by  giving  up  the 
senses  to  what  the  world  calls  pleasure,  that  people  are  rendered  happy, 
but  they  are  rendered  so  by  moderate  desires,  and  a  virtuous  life. 

Sir  Walter  Raleigh,  after  a  life  devoted  to  the  service  of  his  country ;  a 
life  distinguished  by  valor,  learning,  and  enterprise,  was  beheaded  on 
Tower-hill,  and  was  the  first  man  in  this  country  that  smoked  tobacco. 


GRAMMATICAL   PtRITY.  155 

In  this  uneasy  state,  both  of  his  public  and  private  life,  Cicero  was  op- 
pressed by  a  new  and  deep  affliction,  the  death  of  his  beloved  daugliter 
Tullia;  which  happened  soon  after  his  divorce  from  Dolabella ;  whose 
manners  were  entirely  disagreeable  to  her. 


LESSON  IXIV. 

GRAMMATICAL   PURITY    OF   DICTION, 

Style  is  the  mode  of  expression  which  we  adopt  in  giving 
utterance  to  our  thoughts.  It  varies  with  the  subject,  with 
the  writer,  and  the  occasion ;  with  those  for  whom  we 
write,  and  the  object  or  design  of  writing.  As  the  basis  of 
a  good  style,  grammatical  proprieties  are  ever  to  be  ob- 
served. 

Style  is  affected  by  the  extent  and  variety  of  our  knowU 
edge  ;  by  the  soundness  of  our  judgment,  the  delicacy  and 
correctness  of  our  taste,  the  degree  of  our  mental  culture 
and  discrimination.  A  careful  study  of  the  English  lan- 
guage, and  an  extensive  knowledge  of  the  meaning  and 
uses  of  its  words,  are  essential  to  tlie  acquiring  of  a  good 
English  style. 

Style  relates  to  Diction^  and  to  Structure, — The  qualities 
of  Diction  may  be  considered  under  four  heads  : 

1.  Purity  of  Diction;  by  which  is  meant  the  employment  of 
such  words  and  phrases,  and  construction,  exclusively,  as  belong 
to  the  English  language. 

2.  Simplicity  of  Diction^  consisting  in  the  use  of  such  words 
and  phrases  as  are  most  frequently  and  commonly  employed  by 
good  writers  ;  such  as  are  easily  comprehended  by  persons  of  or- 
dinary intelligence  and  education. 

3.  Propriety  of  Diction^  is  the  use  of  words  with  the  precise 
signification  which  "  the  best  usage^'  has  attached  to  each  of  them, 
observing  the  more  delicate  shades  of  meaning  belonging  to  them 
in  particular  collocations. 

4.  Precision  of  Diction  clothes  each  thought  not  only  with  those 


156  FURITY    OF   DICTION. 

words  which  most  perfectly  represent  it,  but  with  no  more  words 
than  are  necessary  for  this  purpose ;  also  employing  the  same 
words  in  the  same  sense,  in  the  same  connection. 

1.  Purity  of  Diction. 

This  implies  (1)  That  the  words  used  be  English  words. 
(2)  That  their  construction  into  sentences  be  such  as  suits 
the  pecuUarities  of  the  English  language. 

"We  must  in  general  use  only  English  words.  The  opposite  fault 
is  denominated  a  barbarism. 

Hence  (1),  we  must  in  general  avoid  the  choice  of  words  that 
have  gone  entirely  out  of  use — obsolete  words.  They  are,  indeed, 
occasionally  allowable  in  poetry,  as  a  facility  in  versification  ;  also 
in  treating  some  portions  of  the  history  of  former  ages  ;  in  bur- 
lesque writing,  also,  old  and  almost  obsolete  words  subserve  one's 
purpose ;  and  further,  in  some  grave  compositions,  such  words 
help  to  give  an  ancient  and  venerable  air  to  the  style.  But,  in 
general,  such  words  are  not  to  be  used ;  and  when  used,  used  very 
sparingly. 

Such  words  are  the  following :  behooved^  heseeched^  hewray^  enoio^  erst^  quot%^ 
opinionate^  unctuatiun^  pecunious^  corrugose^  acception^  greatening^  helikely^ 
unon^  behest,  whilom^  self-same^  cruciate^  parvitude^  &c. 

Correct  and  elegant  writing  does  not  admit  of  certain  abbrevia- 
tions ;  such  as  extra  for  extraordinary ;  incog. ^  for  incognito ; 
hyp.^  for  hypochondriac;  pro  and  con,  for  both  sides;  i.  «.,  for 
"  that  is  ;"  e.  g.^  "  for  the  sake  of  example  ;"  and  viz.^  for 
"  namely." 

(2.)  For  the  same  reason,  entirely  new^  strange.,  and  unauthor- 
ized, words  and  phrases  are  not  to  be  used,  or  but  very  seldom, 
and  not  without  special  reason  ;  such  words,  while  they  tend  to 
render  a  language  copious,  tend  also  to  unsettle  it,  to  banish  good 
terms  in  established  use,  and  to  impair  the  literature  of  the  past. 

The  best  reason  for  coining  and  introducing  new  words,  is  the 
introduction  of  new  ideas,  new  arts,  or  sciences,  for  expressing  or 
describing  wh^-^h  the  language  at  present  furnishes  no  suitable 
terms.  When  new  words  are  formed  according  to  the  genius 
and  .structure  of  the  language,  are  agreeable  to  the  ear  when  })ro- 


PURITY    OF    DICTION.  157 

nounced,  and  tend  to  enrich  the  language,  they  are  not  to  be  con- 
demned or  rejected. 

High-sounding  and  learned-UJce  words  and  epithets  should,  for 
the  most  part,  be  avoided.  ''  There  is,"  says  Harrison,  "  an  in- 
flated or  stilted  style  of  composition,  embodying  terms  altogether 
disproportionate  to  the  subject,  and  which  is  often  so  unfortunate 
as  to  combine  in  one  sentence,  or  one  paragraph,  the  pompous, 
the  offensive,  and  the  ridiculous." 

"  The  night,  now  far  advanced,  was  brilliantly  bright  with  the  radiancy 
ol  lunar  and  astral  effulgence — a  most  lovely  night ;  a  death-like  stillness 
prevailed  over  nature,  sound  asleep,  and  the  fair  moon,  taking  her  noc- 
turnal promenade  along  the  cloudless  azure  and  stellar  canopy  of  heaven, 
walked  in  all  the  resplendency  of  her  highest  and  brightest  glory  ; — the 
very  night,  according  to  fiction's  tales  and  romance,  of  imagination's  fan- 
tastic records,  as  (that)  would  have  suited  a  melancholic  pensiveness,  a 
sentimental  solitude,  a  chivalrous  spirit,  bent  on  some  Quixotic  deed  of 
bold  adventure." — G.  Clayton. 

The  inflated  and  pedantic  style  of  phraseology  condemned  in 
this  lesson  is  not  always  out  of  place.  When  there  is  an  intent 
tional  disproportion  between  the  subject  and  the  diction,  as  in 
*'  The  Battle  of  the  Frogs  and  Mice,"  or  in  the  case  of  a  puff^  the 
hyperbolical  may  be  made  productive  of  considerable  humor. 

In  late  years  there  has  been  displayed  by  some  flashy  writers  a 
propensity  to  use  incongruous  terms^  and  to  coin  compound  words 
of  unwonted  length.,  and  of  many  joints  or  limds. 

Thus  the  authoress  of  "Evelina,"  in  her  ''Memoirs  of  Dr.  Bur- 
ney,"  writes : 

"Six  heartless,  nearly  desolate  years  of  lonely  conjugal  chaem  had  suc- 
ceeded to  double  their  number  of  unparalleled  conjugal  enjoyment;  and 
the  void  was  still  /allow  and  hopeless  when  the  yet  ve/y-handsome-though' 
■no-long ei'-in-her-hloom  Mrs.  Stephen  Allen  of  Lynn,  now  become  a  widow, 
decided  for  the  promoting  (of)  the  education  of  her  eldest  daughter,  to 
make  London  her  winter  residence." 

Again : 

"  Scarcely  had  this  harrowing  filial  separation  taken  place,  ere  an  as 
sault  was  made  upon  liis  conjugal  feelings,  by  the  sudden-at-the-moment 
though  from-lingering-illness-often-p7-eviously-expected  death  of  Mr.  Burney'fe 
t.ocond  wife." 

Among  the  strange  and  unauthorized  words  that  some  authors 
Lave  used,  the  following  are  noted  down : 


158  PURITY    OF   DICTION. 

Exf^'oitive,  introitive,  retroitive,  un-let-up-able,  wide-awake-it^ ^  go-ity 
go-awanf-ness^  pocketually,  hetweenity^  fashiondom^  connexity^  absquatulate^ 
elang-whanger^  plumptitude^  adorement^  judgmatical^  miscellanarian^  gaseity. 
injluenci've^  productivity^  effectuate^  boss. 

Exercises. 

Improve  the  style  of  the  following  sentences,  by  substi- 
tuting, where  it  is  necessary,  other  words  and  phrases  in 
better  taste.     The  sentences  should  be  written. 

It  irks  me  to  see  so  perverse  a  disposition. 

I  wot  not  who  hath  done  this  thing. 

He  was  long  indisposed,  and  at  lengtlidied  of  the  hyp. 

It  repenteth  me  that  I  have  walked  so  long  in  the  paths  of  folly. 

Sobermindedness  suits  the  present  state  of  man. 

Methinks  I  am  not  mistaken  in  an  opinion  I  have  so  well  considered. 

The  question  was  strenuously  debated  pro  and  con. 

I  had  as  lief  do  it  myself  as  persuade  another  to  do  it. 

He  is  not  a  whit  better  than  those  whom  he  so  liberally  condemns. 

Of  the  justice  of  his  measures,  he  convinced  others  by  the  dint  of  argu- 
ment. 

He  stands  upon  security,  and  will  not  liberate  him  till  it  be  obtained. 

The  meaning  of  the  phrase,  as  I  take  it,  is  very  different  from  the  com- 
mon acceptation. 

The  favorable  moment  should  be  embraced,  for  he  does  not  hold  long  of 
one  mind. 

The  assistance  was  welcome  and  timelily  afforded. 

The  scene  was  new,  and  he  was  seized  with  wonderment  at  all  he  saw. 

For  want  of  employment  he  streamed  idly  about  the  fields. 

I  came  through  a  crowd  of  people,  and  have  been  almost  scrouged  to 
dbttth. 


LESSON  LXV. 

PURITY     OF     DICTION. 

In  continuation  of  the  observations  made  in  the  last  les- 
son, it  may  be  remarked : 

1.  There  are  certain  expressions  which  are  vulgar^  and  should 
not  be  used  in  the  writings  of  well-educated  persons.  An  Eng- 
lisli  author,  among  others,  quotes  the  following: 


PURITY    OF   DICTION.  159 

Jiother,  lamboozle^  hang  wp^  hlow  up^  flare  up^  helter-skelter^  harum-scarum^ 
pell-mell^  slap-dash^  topsy-turvy^  higgledy-piggledy^  hurly-burly^  humdrum, 
hoc/us-pocus,  humbug y  quiz,  whit,  mort,  dint,  pop  out,  swell  out,  long-winded, 
as  lief,  mu^t  needs,  &c. 

The  following  expressions  are  also  vulgar : 

Lingo,  for  language  ;  palaver,  for  loquacity ;  berth,  for  place  or  situation : 
jaunt,  for  excursion ;  bedizen,  for  adorn  or  ornament ;  shift,  for  provide  for, 
or  to  take  care  of ;  quandary,  for  difficulty ;  rigmarole,  for  succession  of 
long  and  tedious  stories  ;  mulligrubs,  for  pain  in  the  stomach  ;  a  world  of 
money,  for  much  money ;  b7'ass,  for  shamelessness  ;  sucking  one^s  brains,  for 
borrowing  one's  ideas ;  with  half  an  eye,  for  easily ;  gammon,  for  decep- 
tion ;  the  whole  hog,  for  the  whole  thing. 

Yet  the  above  are  not  to  be  excluded  from  burlesque  or  comic  composi- 
tions. 

2.  The  unnecessaiy  use  oi  foreign  words^  is  a  violation  of  purity 
of  diction. 

The  following  instances  from  the  French  language  are  quoted  : 

Affaire  du  cotur,  for  "  an  intrigue,  or  a  love  affair ;"  a-propos,  for  "  to  tho 
point  or  purpose;"  agremens,  for  "ornaments;"  d-la-mode,  for  "to  the 
fashion  ;"  amende  honorable,  for  "  satisfaction  ;"  antique,  for  "  ancient ;"  au 
fond^  for  "to  the  bottom,  or  merits  of  a  subject;"  au  fait,  for  to  the 
point ;  au  naturel,  to  the  life  ;  bagatelle,  for  a  trifle  ;  beau  ideal,  for  perfec- 
tion ;  beau  monde,  for  the  gay  and  fashionable  world ;  beaux  arts,  for  liberal 
arts;  billet-doux,  for  a  love-letter;  bizarre,  for  singular,  eccentric;  bonne 
bouche,  for  a  nice  morsel ;  bon  mot,  for  a  witticism  ;  bon  ton,  for  the  height 
of  fashion;  badinage,  for  half-earnest  jesting;  brusque,  iorhlxxTit',  canaille, 
for  the  rabble ;  carte-blanche,  for  unlimited  powers,  one's  own  terms ; 
chateau,  for  a  country  seat ;  chef-d'oeuvre,  for  a  master-piece  ;  ci-devant,  for 
formerly  ;  con  amore,  for  devotion,  zeal,  alacrity,  &c. 

So  also,  conge  d''elire,  for  leave  to  elect ;  corps  diplomatique,  for  the  diplo- 
matic body ;  coup  d'' eclat,  for  a  stroke  of  policy  or  a  remarkable  action ; 
coup  d^esmi,  for  a  trial  or  an  attempt ;  coup  d'^etat,  for  a  piece  of  state  pol- 
icy ;  coup  de  grace,  for  a  finisliing  stroke ;  coup  de  main,  for  a  sudden  or 
bold  enterprise  ;  coup  doeil,  for  a  quick  glance  of  the  eye  ;  coup  de  theatre, 
for  a  clap-trap ;  debut,  for  first  appearance,  or  beginning;  dernier  ressort, 
for  a  last  and  only  resource ;  double  entendre,  for  double  meaning;  douceur^ 
for  a  present  or  bribe ;  eclair cissement,  for  an  elucidation ;  eclat,  for  noto- 
riety, splendor;  eleve,  for  pupil ;  en  bon  point,  for  jolly,  or  in  good  condi- 
tion ;  empressement,  for  earnestness  ;  encore,  for  again  ;  en  badinage,  in  fun, 
en  avant,  for  onwards,  or  in  advance  ;  en  masse,  for  in  a  body  or  mass ;  en 
passant,  for  by  the  way,  or  passing;  ennui,  for  lassitude,  blue  devils,  or 
weariness  ;  faux  pas,  for  misconduct ;  fete,  for  feast  or  entertainment ; 
^/*€s*^,  for  cunning  or  dexterity;  hauteur,  for  haughtiness;  haut  gotU,  for 


160  PURITY    OF    DICTION. 

high  flavor;  haul  ton^  for  high  life ;  jeu  de  mots^  for  a  phiy  of  words;  jeu 
d? esprit^  for  a  display  of  wit,  a  witticism. 

There  may  be  added  to  the  above,  mal-d-propos^  for  unfit  or  unseasona- 
ble ;  mawvaise  honte^  for  unbecoming  bashfulness  ;  outre^  for  eccentric ;  on 
dit^  for  report,  or  it  is  said;  opinidtre^  for  positive;  par  Jiasard^  for  by 
chance,  accidental  ;  penchant,  for  inclination  ;  pis  aller^  for  last  effort ;  jpetit 
maitre,  for  a  fop  ;  politesse^  for  politeness ;  protege^  for  a  person  patronized 
or  protected  ;  on  the  qui  vive,  for  on  the  alert ;  ruse  de  gverre^  for  a  strata- 
gem of  war ;  savoir  falre,  for  knowledge  of  business ;  savoir  vivre^  for 
good  manners,  or  knowledge  of  the  world  ;  sans  froid,^  for  indifference, 
coolness,  or  apathy  ;  savant^  for  a  learned  man  ;  soi-disant^  for  self-called, 
pretended  ;  table  d'hote,  for  an  ordinary  ;  tapis^  for  a  subject  of  discussion  , 
trait^  for  a  feature  ;  tete-a-tete,  for  a  private  conversation  ;  unique^  for  sin- 
gular; vis-d-vis,  for  opposite;  with  a  long  list  of  words  of  the  like  de- 
scription with  which  not  only  conceited  and  shallow-minded  writers  and 
speakers  embellish,  as  they  ignorantly  suppose,  their  writings  and  dis- 
course, but  which  disfigure  the  productions  of  many  of  the  best  and  most 
admired  English  authors ;  being  blemishes  highly  injurious  to  the  beauty 
and  purity  of  the  English  language,  which  is  sufficiently  copious  and  ex- 
pressive, and  possesses  sufficient  capabilities  not  to  require  the  aid  of  for 
eign  and  adventitious  ornament  or  addition. 

The  English  language  does  not  require  the  aid  of  such  foreign 
terms  as  the  above,  to  express  the  ideas  which  they  represent; 
yet  a  few  of  thera  have,  by  long  use,  become  so  common  and  so 
naturalized,  that  a  sparing  use  may  be  allowed,  as  expressing 
more  exactly  or  more  concisely  certain  ideas,  than  corresponding 
English  expressions  are  able  to  do ;  such  as,  antique,  attache,  bil- 
let-doux, cortege,  boudoir,  espionage,  chaperon,  eclat,  encore,  ci- 
devant,  soi-disant,  debut,  en -dishabille,  en  profile,  douceur,  nial-^- 
propos,  protege,  parvenu,  rencontre,  t6te-k-t6te. 

Foreign  words,  when  they  obviate  a  tedious  and  feeble  circuni 
locution  are  not  to  be  rejected ;  provided  that  they  are  under- 
stood by  those  for  whom  we  write.  So,  also,  those  which  denote 
articles  of  manufacture  or  commerce  for  which  we  have  no  equiv- 
alent, may  properly  be  adopted ;  as,  guillotine,  bayonet,  scimitar, 
suttee,  gong,  gutta-i)erclia. 

Such  terms  (says  Mr.  Harrison)  are  already  made  to  our  hands, 
and  off'er  themselves  for  their  adoption.  In  this  there  is  nothing 
worthy  of  blame ;  it  is  the  practice  of  all  countries.  But  this  is 
very  different  from  that  silly ^  pedantic  affectation  of  interlarding 
our  language  with  foreign  terms^  where  there  is  no  occasion  for 
it;  very  different  from  that  heterogeneous  mixture  which  no  pro- 


FOREIGN    PHRASES    AND    IDIOMS.  161 

cess,  nowever  laborious,  can  ever  triturate  into  a  state  of  amalga- 
mation. We  wish  not  the  manly  form  of  our  language  to  be 
tricked  out  in  a  coat  of  many  colors. 

Foreign  Phrases  (copied  from  Lady  Morgan^  New  Monthly): 

"  I  was  cliez  moi,  inhaling  the  odeur  musquee  of  my  scented  boudoir, 
when  the  Prince  de  L.  entered.  He  found  me  in  my  demi-toilette,  blasee- 
surtout,  and  pensively  engaged  in  soUtary  conjugation  of  the  verb  s'en- 
nuyer ;  and,  though  he  had  never  been  one  of  my  habitues,  or  by  any 
means  des  notres,  I  was  not  disinclined,  at  this  moment  of  delassement,  to 
ghde  with  him  into, the  crocchio  restretto  of  familiar  chat." 

Foreign  idioms  ought  as  strenuously  to  he  avoided  as  foreign 
terms  and  phrases.  They  derange,  and  interfere  with,  the  natural 
order  of  the  language.  This  corruption  is  well  exemplified  in 
Hannah  More's  '^  Satirical  Letter  from  a  Lady  to  her  Friend :" 

"  Dear  Madam: — I  no  sooner  found  myself  here  than  I  visited  my  new 
apartments ;  the  small  room  which  gives  upon  the  garden,  is  practised 
through  the  great  one,  and  there  is  no  other  issue.  As  I  was  exceeded 
with  fatigue,  I  no  sooner  made  my  toilette  than  I  let  myself  full  upon  a 
bed  of  repose,  where  sleep  came  to  surprise  me.  All  that  England  has  of 
illustrious,  all  that  youth  has  of  amiable,  or  beauty  of  ravishing,  sees  it- 
self in  this  quarter.  Render  yourself  here  then,  my  friend,  and  you  shall 
find  assembled  all  that  is  of  best,  whether  for  letters,  &c.,  &c." 

Here  the  words  are  English,  but  the  idiom  altogether  French. 
It  is  intelligible;  but,  as  English,  ridiculous. 

3.  The  use  of  Latinized  words^  carried  too  far,  violates  the 
purity  of  English  diction.  Such  a  violation  is  particularly  charge- 
able against  Dr.  Samuel  Johnson.  While,  indeed,  he  has  thus 
improved  the  harmony  of  our  language  and  diversified  its  struc- 
ture and  rhythm,  he  has  nevertheless  weakened  its  energy. 

With  a  view  to  encourage  the  use  of  the  Saxon  words 
of  our  language  particularly,  and  to  show  the  expediency 
of  a  sparing  use  of  words  of  Latin  origin,  the  author 
would  refer  to  a  chapter  of  "  Harrison  on  the  English  Lan- 
guage," showing  its  singularly  monosyllahic  character ^  it 
will  be  read  Avith  equal  pleasure  and  profit. 

Says  Southey :  •"'  The  English  is  a  noble  language — a  beautiful 
language.  I  can  tolerate  a  Germanism  for  family  sake,  but  he 
who  uses  a  Latin  or  French  phrase  where  a  pure  old  English  word 


162  EXPRESSIVE   POWER   OF   WORDS. 

does  as  well,  ought  to  be  hung,  drawn,  and  quartered,  for  high 
treason  against  his  mother  tongue." 

On  the  other  side,  it  has  been  very  properly  observed,  that  "  by 
the  adoption  of  the  words  and  idioms  of  the  classic  languages  of 
Greece  and  Rome,  as  also  those  of  the  modern  French  and  Ital 
ian,  the  English  language  has  not  only  been  enriched  and  har- 
monized, but  it  has  been  rendered  more  flexible,  graceful,  and 
expressive;  and  words  and  constructions  of  phrases  have  been 
introduced  into  it,  necessary  for  the  expression  of  compound  and 
abstract  ideas,  of  which  its  Saxon  origin  renders  it  unsusceptible, 
it  being  a  language  adapted  only  to  a  simple  state  of  society;  but 
as  the  ideas  of  men  became  improved  and  extended,  a  consequent 
improvement  was  necessary  to  be  made  in  language  (the  symbol 
and  vehicle  of  thought),  and  that  improvement  could  be  made 
only  by  a  new  coinage,  or  by  the  adoption  of  words  borrowed 
from  other  languages,  moulded  into  the  form  and  genius  of  our 
speech.  The  English  language  is  a  compound  of  many  languages, 
and  its  force  and  beauty  depend  on  their  happy  and  tasteful  amal- 
gamation." 

Exercise. 

It  will  be  found  a  useful  form  of  exercise  on  the  expres- 
sive power  of  words  (as  Prof.  Wm.  Russell,  in  his  excellent 
"Exercises  on  Words,"  has  suggested),  (1),  to  translate 
a  given  passage  in  which  terms  of  Latin  origin  prevail,  into 
words  purely  Saxon;  (2),  to  translate  an  idiomatic  and 
vernacular  passage  from  Anglo-Saxon  into  Latinized  phra- 
seology; (3),  to  compose  sentences  with  purely  vernacular 
words  predominating ;  (4),  to  compose  Latinized  diction; 
(5),  to  compose  sentences  and  paragraphs  in  which  the 
phraseology  intermingles  both  these  forms  of  our  language. 


LESSON  LXVI. 


SIMPLICITY    OF   DICTION. 


1.  This  requires  that  com'plex  and  abstruse  words^  unless  ahso- 
lutely  necessary^  sJiould  not  he  used ;  as,  verbalism^  for  word ; 


SIMPLICITY    OF   DICTION.  163 

deleterious^  for  hurtful  or  injurious;   configuration^  for  figure; 
oognition^  for  knowledge ;  velocity^  for  speed,  &c. 

2.  Technical  terms  (those  drawn  from  some  particular  art, 
science,  or  profession,  and  not  well  understood  generally),  ought  to 
he  used  very  sparingly,  when  other  terms  can  be  found  to  express 
the  idea  intended  to  be  conveyed;  as,  infinitesimal^  for  very 
small ;  specific  gravity^  for  comparative  weight ;  caloric^  for  heat ; 
density^  for  thickness;  rare^  for  thin;  copy^  for  manuscript; 
tihipped  a  sea^  for  a  heavy  wave  broke  over  the  vessel ;  ''we 
tacked  to  the  larboard,"  for  "  we  sailed  to  the  left,"  &c. 

3.  It  is  a  good  rule,  also,  when  a  deep  impression  is  sought  to 
be  made,  to  employ  specific  rather  than  general  terms^  and  the 
words  commonly  used  for  expressing  any  particular  idea,  rather 
than  other  words  which  convey  the  same  idea  more  indirectly. 
This  rule  will  be  illustrated  in  a  future  lesson. 

Illustration. 

What  is  here  meant  by  Simplicity  of  Diction  cannot,  perhaps, 
be  more  satisfactorily  illustrated,  than  by  presenting  in  contrast 
the  Twenty-third  Psalm  in  our  own  beautiful  English  version, 
and  the  gorgeous  and  pompous  Paraphrase  which  a  distinguished 
English  Divine  once  inflicted  upon  it. 

The  Lord  is  my  Shepherd;  I  shall  not  want.  He  maketh  me  to  lie 
down  in  green  pastures :  he  leadeth  me  beside  the  still  waters.  He  re- 
Btoreth  my  soul :  he  leadeth  me  in  the  paths  of  righteousness  for  his  name's 
sake.  Yea,  though  I  walk  through  the  valley  of  the  shadow  of  death,  I 
will  fear  no  evil :  for  thou  art  with  me ;  thy  rod  and  thy  staff  they  com- 
fort me. 

Thou  preparest  a  table  before  me  in  the  presence  of  mine  enemies :  thou 
anointest  my  head  with  oil ;  my  cup  runneth  over.  Snrely  goodness  and 
mercy  shall  follow  me  all  the  days  of  my  life ;  and  I  will  dwell  iu  the 
house  of  the  Lord  forever. 

*'  Deity  is  my  Pastor.  I  shall  not  be  indigent.  He  maketh  me  to  re- 
cumb  on  the  verdant  lawns,  He  leadeth  me  beside  the  unrippled  liquidities; 
He  reinstalleth  my  spirits,  and  ronducteth  me  in  the  avenues  of  rectitude, 
for  the  celebrity  of  his  appellations,  Unquestionably,  though  I  perambu- 
late the  gleu  of  the  umbrages  of  the  sepulchral  dormitories,  I  will  not  be 
perturbed  by  appalling  catastrophes ;  for  Thou  art  present,  Thy  wand  and 
thy  crook  insinuate  delectation. 


164  SIMPLICITY   OF   DICTION. 

"  Thou  spreadest  a  refection  before  me,  in  the  midst  of  inimical  flcrutar 
tions ;  Thou  perfumest  my  locks  with  odoriferous  unguents,  my  chalice 
exuberates. 

'*  Indubitably  benignity  and  commiseration  shall  continue  all  the  diu- 
ternity  of  ray  vitality  ;  and  I  will  eternalize  my  habitance  in  the  Metropolis 
of  Nature!!!" 

Easy^  idiomatic  diction  (says  an  excellent  author),  is  not  neces- 
sarily destitute  of  elegance ;  and  if  the  occasion  calls  for  the  collo- 
quial style,  any  other  than  the  colloquial  would  be  in  bad  taste.  In- 
stead of  saying,  "  I  am  very  tired,"  wlien  an  occasion  for  saying  so 
occurs,  how  pedantic  it  woukl  be  to  lay  down  the  fact  in  a  logical 
proposition  like  this:  ''The  condition  ol  body  which  I  at  this 
moment  experience,  is  that  of  being  very  tired."  It  is  recorded 
of  Dr.  Johnson  that,  having  said  of  a  literary  work,  "It  has  not 
wit  enough  to  keep  it  sweet,"  he  felt  dissatisfied  with  his  mode 
of  expression,  and  corrected  it  to  his  own  taste  by  expressing  tuo 
same  sentiment  thus:  "It  has  not  vitality  sufiBcient  to  preserve  it 
from  putrefaction."  The  learner's  taste  may  possibly  agree  with 
Dr.  Johnson's ;  if  so,  he  must  be  put  on  his  guard  against  acquir- 
ing a  pompous  style,  without  that  substance  of  thought  to  sup- 
port it,  which  must  be  conceded  as  the  merit  of  Dr.  Johnson's 
productions  in  general.  At  all  events,  let  him  express  common 
thoughts  in  common  idiomatic  language^  with  all  the  smoothne.?3 
and  ease  he  can  introduce. 

While  this  is  good  advice,  it  must  on  the  other  hand  be  cou 
ceded,  that  the  judicious  intermixture  of  Anglo-Saxon  and  clas- 
sical terms  constitutes  the  style  of  our  best  authors.  It  gives  a 
legitimate  variety  of  composition,  formed  upon  peculiar  tastes  and 
education.  In  this  respect.  Swift  and  Johnson  may  be  considered 
as  placed  at  opposite  extremes:  the  style  of  the  former  being 
peculiarly  English;  that  of  the  latter  being  formed  upon  the 
classical  models,  and  imitating  not  only  the  phraseology,  but  the 
polish  and  rotundity  of  their  periods.  To  court  classical  terms 
too  much,  or  to  avoid  them  too  much,  would  generally  lead  to  a 
mode  of  expression  bordering  on  affectation.  In  words  com- 
pounded with  prepositions,  we  have  borrowed  largely,  and  neces- 
sarily so,  from  the  Latin ;  and  from  these  borrowed  terms,  primary 
and  secondary  meanings  are  obtained  with  a  happy  discrimination. 
Take,  for  instance,  the  verb  sisto^  "  I  stand."  We  then  ha\  e,  in 
tlie  first  place, 


SIMPLICITY    OF    DICTION.  165 

Sisto^  I  stand. 
Compounded  with  Ad,  Adsisto,  I  stand  to,  or  near,  Assist. 

"  "    Con,  Consisto,  I  stand  with,  agree  with,  Consist. 

"  "     De,  Desisto,  I  stand  off,  Desist. 

"  *'     Ex,  Existo,  I  stand  forth.  Exist. 

u  u     jj-^  insisto  ■!  ^  ^^^^^  over,  upon,  take  my  stand  on, 

'  '  I      Insist. 

*'  "     Per,  Persisto,  I  stand  through.  Persist. 

"  "    Ee,  Resisto,  I  stand  back.  Resist. 

"  "     Sub,  Subsisto,  I  stand  under.  Subsist. 

So  from  traho^  I  draw,  is  derived  tractus^  drawing,  from  which  we  have 
Attract,  to  draw  to;  Contract,  to  draw  together;  Detract,  to  draw  from; 
Distract,  to  draw  asunder ;  Extract,  to  draw  out  of ;  Protract,  to  draw  for- 
ward; Retract,  to  draw  back  ;  Subtract,  to  draw  from  under. 

Exercise. 

As  the  fault  of  negligence  is  to  be  considered  on  the  one 
hand,  so  a  heavy ^  ^^^fft  and  pedantic  style  of  expression  is  to 
be  avoided  on  the  other.  Therefore,  change  the  form  of  ex- 
pression used  in  the  following  sentences,  so  as  to  impart  to 
them  greater  ease,  smoothness,  and  simplicity  of  diction. 

The  feeling  I  experience  at  the  present  moment  is  that  of  being,  through- 
out my  body,  in  a  state  of  fun. 

To  vex  your  sister  is  a  thing  which  you  seem  to  know,  while  there  are 
things  that  you  ought  to  know  better. 

The  presumption  which  I  have  shown,  and  which  I  readily  admit  to  be 
what  I  call  it,  is  that  for  which  I  now  put  in  a  plea  for  your  paraon. 

My  command  is,  that  thou,  a  witch,  shall  go  out  of  my  sight,  and  never 
come  into  it  again. 

Expensive  commodities  procured  from  distant  parts,  are  acceptable  to 
the  feminine  portion  of  our  species. 

That  we  should  not  precipitate  any  undertaking  in  a  greater  degree  than 
its  proper  as  well  as  speedy  performance  demands,  is  a  maxim  for  the 
people  to  observe. 

From  what  port  are  you  come,  and  to  which  are  you  going? 

The  extent  of  the  authority  of  the  governor  is  dependent  on  the  dura- 
tion of  the  decree  of  the  king. 

The  philosophical  virtues  stand  distinct  from,  though  not  opposed  to, 
those  which  Christianity  teaches. 

Death  is  that  from  which  all  fly,  that  to  which  all  must  come,  that  for 
which  few  are  prepared.  (Note. — That  which  is  a  phrase  whose  meaning 
may  be  briefly  implied  by  the  single  term  what.) 

That  you  should  feel  yourself  welcome,  is  my  first  request;  that  you 
should  give  me  your  hand,  i.«  my  second. 


166  PROPRIETY    OF   EXPRESSION. 

This  is  the  house  of  the  partner  of  thu  brother  of  my  wife. 

He  was  so  far  from  making  head  against,  that  he  was  glad  to  ran  awaj 
from,  the  enemies  that  he  had  wilfully  raised. 

I  am  afraid  that  all  the  evil  which  his  folly  has  caused,  will  fail  to  make 
him  a  jot  wiser. 

Health  and  happiness  is  what  we  cordially  wish  for  you. 

He  was  flattered  by,  but  sunk  under,  the  duty  with  which  he  waf 
charged. 


LESSON  LXVII. 

PROPRIETY    OF   EXPRESSION. 

Words  may  be  purely  English,  and  yet  improper,  as  not 
adapted  to  the  subject,  nor  fully  conveying  the  sense ;  or 
they  may  be  equivocal,  and  convey  a  sense  different  from 
that  which  is  intended.  Propriety  of  expression  demands 
such  words  and  phrases  as  approved  writers  have  appropri- 
ated to  the  expression  of  those  ide^s  which  we  employ 
them  to  convey.     Therefore 

Rule  I. — Guard  against  the  use  of  equivocal  or  ambiguous  ex- 
pressions. 

For  instance :  "  He  aimed  at  nothing  less  than  the  crown."  This  niay 
mean,  either  that  nothing  less  than  the  crown  was  aimed  at  by  him,  or  that 
he  less  aimed  at  the  crown  than  at  other  things. 

"His  memory  shall  be  lost  on  the  earth."  This  may  mean,  either  that 
he  should  cease  to  remember,  or  that  he  should  cease  to  be  remembered. 

*'  The  whites  and  blues  gained  the  prize."  This  sentence  leaves  it  un- 
determined whether  the  same  persons  were  both  whites  and  blues,  or 
"whether  the  whites  and  the  blues  were  different  classes  of  persons. 

"  As  for  such  animals  as  are  mortal  or  noxious,  we  have  a  right  to  destroy 
them.  "I  long  since  learned  to  like  nothing  but  what  you  do.'''*  '•'' Iwill 
have  mercy ^  and  not  sacrifice."     "The  rising  tomb  a  lofty  column  bore." 

Rule  II. — Avoid  inconsistent  and  unintelligible  terms.,  or 
phrases : 

For  example  :  "  These  words  do  not  convey  even  an  opaque  idea  of  the 
author's  meaning."  "Some  pains  have  been  thrown  away  in  attempting 
to  retrieve  (regain)  the  names  of  those  to  whom  he  alludes." 

"I  have  observed,"  says   Steele,  "that  the  superiority  among  thesf 


PROPRIETY    OF   EXPRESSION.  167 

coffee-house  politicians  proceeds  from  an  opinion  of  gallantry  and  fa?l  ion." 
Here  the  question  may  arise,  what  opinion,  good  or  bad?  and  whose 
opinion  ? 

"  This  temper  of  mind"  (referring  to  humility)  "  keeps  our  understand 
ing  tight  about  us :"  quit-e  unintelligible,  surely. 

Sometimes  a  specious  flow  of  words,  a  series  of  synonyms,  and 
identical  propositions,  well-turned  periods,  and  high-sounding 
words,  give  us  sound  instead  of  sense — words  being  used  so  indefi- 
nitely that  no  meaning,  or  various  meanings,  may  be  attached  to 
tliem;  thus, 

"  From  harmony,  from  heavenly  harmony, 
This  universal  frame  began  ; 
,  From  harmony  to  harmony 
Through  all  the  compass  of  the  notes  it  ran, 
The  diapason  closing  full  in  man." 

Rule  III. —  Guard  against  selecting  improper  expressions  from 
their  resemhlance  in  sound  to  the  one  proper  to  he  used. 

Thus  men  improperly  speak  of  the  religious  observation  of  a  festival,  in- 
stead of  ohservaTice.  Thus  endurance  (which  means  patience)  is  confounded 
with  duration.  Discrimination  must  now  be  made  between  terms  which 
only  a  century  ago  were  held  as  synonymous ;  such  as,  state  and  estate^ 
property  and  propriety,  import  and  importance,  conscience  and  consciousness, 
arrant  and  errant. 

Human  (that  which  belongs  to  man)  is  not  to  be  confounded  with  liu- 
manc  (kind  and  compassionate) ;  nor  humanly  with  humanely,  as  in  those 
lines  of  Pope : 

"  Though  learn'd,  well-bred ;  and  though  well-bred,  sincere ; 
Modestly  bold,  and  humanly  severe.'* 

Humanity  bears  both  senses. 

Ceremonious  (attentive  to  the  forms  of  civility)  must  not  be  used  instead 
of  ceremonial  (pertaining  to  a  religious  rite). 

Construe  (referring  to  the  disposition  of  words  in  a  sentence)  must  not  be 
used  for  construct  (which  may  be  applied  to  a  building). 

To  "  demean  one's  self"  does  not  mean  the  same  as  to  "debase  one's 
self ;"  the  former  meaning  to  behave^  the  latter  to  behave  meanly. 

E''er  is  a  contraction  of  the  adverb  ever,  and  should  not  be  taken  for  ere 
(before) ;  nor  should  its,  the  possessive  case  of  it,  be  confounded  with 
"^tis  or  iVs,  a  contraction  of  it  is. 

Genii  is  properly  applied  to  demons  or  separate  spirits ;  but  geniuses  tc 
men  of  talents.  Brothers  properly  signifies  male  children  of  the  same 
parent  or  parents ;  brethren  denotes  persons  of  the  same  profession,  nation, 
religion,  or  nature. 


I 


168  PROPRIETY    OF    EXPRESSION. 

Rule  IV. —  Guard  agaiiist  improprieties  arising  from  a  like^ 

ness  in  sense  possessed  by  many  words. 

"  The  invention  of  truth,"  should  be  "the  discovery  of  truth." 

Epithet  is  properly  some  attribute  expressed  by  an  adjective ;  improp- 
erly used  for  tiile  or  appellation. 

liisihle  (meaning  "  capable  of  laughing")  has  been  improperly  used  for 
ridiculous.,  "fit  to  be  laughed  at."  Thus  it  is  proper  to  say,  "Man  is  a 
risible  animal ;"  "  A  fop  is  a  ridiculous  character." 

Together  is  improperly  used  for  successively  ;  as  when  it  is  said,  "  I  never 
fipoke  three  sentences  together  in  my  whole  life." 

Everlasting  is  improperly  applied  to  denote  time  without  beginning,  the 
only  proper  sense  of  it  being  time  without  end  ;  as  in  the  words,  "  From 
everlasting  to  everlasting,  Thou  art  God."  The  proper  form  would  be, 
"  From  eternity  to  eternity,  Thou  art  God." 

Apparent  is  not  properly  used  for  certain.,  or  manifest.  It  properly 
means  seeming.,  as  opposed  to  real ;  or  visible.,  as  opposed  to  concealed. 
The  phrase  to  mahe  appear  should  not  be  used  instead  of  to  prove.,  to  show  ; 
for  a  talented  man  may  be  able  to  make  a  thing  appear  what  it  is  not.,  and 
this  is  very  different  from  showing  what  it  is. 


LESSON  IXVIII. 

PROPRIETY    OF    EXPRESSION. 

Rule  V. — Do  not  employ  an  English  word  in  a  promnciaX 
sense.,  in  a  sense  which  it  bears  only  in  low  and  partial  use. 

Examples. — Impracticable  iov  "  impassable,"  applied  to  roads. 

Arrive  at.,  for  "happen,"  in  the  sentence,  "I  cannot  help  feeling  any  sor- 
row that  may  arrive  a^  man." 

To  hold  should  not  be  employed  for  "to  use;"  nor  to  give  into.,  for 
"adopt." 

That  he  should  have  said.,  is  not  to  be  used  for  "  that  he  said ;"  as, 
"  The  general  report  is  that  he  should  have  said.,'''' — meaning,  that  he  said. 
A  person  does  not  always  say  what  he  should  have  said. 

The  follov^iiig  are  instances  in  which  sound  and  sense  may  both 
concur  in  leading  to  an  improper  use  of  words. 

Examples. — Falseness  is  properly  used  in  a  moral  sense  for  want  of  ve- 
racity, and  applied  only  to  persons  ;  falsity  dindi  falsehood  are  applied  only 
to  things.  Falsity  means  that  quality  in  the  abstract  which  is  contrary  to 
truth.     Falsehood  is  an  untrue  assertion. 


VULGARISMS   TO   BE    AVOIDED.  169 

Negligence  is  properly  applied  to  wjiat  is  habitual ;  neglect^  only  to  an  act. 

Chnscience  denotes  the  moral  faculty ;  consciousness^  a  notice  of  what  is 
passing  in  our  mind. 

Sophism  properly  denotes  a  fallacious  argument ;  sopMstry^  failaciouiji 
reasoning. 

Eeinember  is  sometimes  improperly  used  for  remind.  We  are  reminded 
by  others  ;  we  remember  for  ourselves. 

Doctrine  is  sometimes  improperly  interciianged  with  precept :  the  former 
denotes  the  truths  we  are  to  believe ;  precept,  the  things  we  are  to  do. 

Rule  YI. — Awid  'Gulgarisms  ;  these  sometimes  result  from  the 
affectation  of  an  easy,  careless,  and  familiar  manner  of  writing. 
It  should  be  considered  that  ease  is  often  the  result  of  great  care 
and  labor : 

"But  ease  in  writing  flows  from  art,  not  chance, 
As  those  move  easiest  who  have  learned  to  dance." 

The  desire  to  avoid  the  beaten  track  of  expression  on  the  one 
hand,  and  the  fondness  for  variety  on  the  other,  leads  writers 
into  improprieties  of  expression. 

Examples  of  Vulgarisms  to  he  avoided. — "  Currying  favor" — "  cutting  a 
figure" — "dancing  attendance" — "swallowing  contradictions" — "  dexter- 
ous in  smelling  out  views  and  designs" — "to  stand  on  an  apology" — "to 
fall  into  conversation" — "to  make  up  the  matter" — "to  shift  for  one's 
self" — "done  to  a  wish" — "to  succeed  to  a  wish" — "to  suck  another's 
brains" — "to  make  up  one's  mind" — "  to  turn  a  matter  in  one's  mind" — 
"to  do  away  with"— " an  ungracious  affair"— " dint  of  argument"— " all 
of  a  piece" — "for  good  and  all" — "  a  good  deal" — "got  rid  of" — "in  for 
it"— "a  whit  better"— "a  jot  better"— "  fell  to  work"— "  to  come  to 
words"—"  to  set  by  the  ears"—"  to  see  with  half  an  eye"—"  pitched  up- 
on"— "  chalked  out" — "  in  a  mind  for  it" — "  to  lay  one's  account  in  being 
opposed" — "to  follow  an  idea" — "to  stand  on  security" — "on  the  spur 
of  the  occasion" — "  to  extinguish  a  bond,  or  a  debt" — "  a  thorough-paced 
knave." 

The  use  of  low  and  familiar  expressions  when  writing  on 
sacred  subjects.,  is  peculiarly  improper.  The  pulpit  is  too  often 
cliargeable  with  this  fault.  For  instance,  Archbishop  Tillotson 
speaks  "of  squeezing  a  parable,"  "sharking  shifts,"  "driving  a 
bargain  with  God,"  and  "  the  world  cracking  about  our  ears  at 
♦he  day  of  judgment." 

a 


170  EXERCISES   ON   PROPRIETY. 

Exercise. 

1.  Correct  the  improper  expressions  used  in  the  follow- 
ing sentences : 

1.  I  believe  the  precepts  and  endeavor  to  obey  the  doctrines  of 
the  Bible.  2.  Please  to  remember  me  of  my  debt  to  you.  3.  He 
has  been  accused  of  sophism.  4.  I  have  a  conscience  of  guilt. 
5.  Negligence  of  duty  is  reproachful  to  any  man.  6.  The  roads 
are  impracticable.  7.  He  gave  into  my  opinion.  8.  Whatever 
calamity  arrives  at  man,  he  is  not  undeserving  of  it.  9.  I  heard 
that  John  should  have  said  that  he  vras  sick.  10.  There  is  a  false- 
ness in  that  statement.     11.  He  is  chargeable  with  falsity. 

2.  Construct  sentences  embodying  the  "vulgarisms  to 
be  avoided,"  in  the  present  lesson,  and  as  many  sentences 
in  which  the  same  thoughts  shall  be  properly  expressf^d. 


LESSON     LXIX. 

PROPRIETY    OF   EXPRESSION. 

Rule  VII. —  Certain  expletive  phrases  and  hy-words^ 
that  violate  propriety  of  expression^  should  he  avoided ; 
such  as,' 

*'  My  goodness" — "gracious  me" — "  unpossible" — "  prodigious" — "  yes, 
indeed" — "indeed" — "in  the  name  of  fortune" — "is  it  possible" — "you 
do  not  say  so" — "  pretty  much" — "  confounded  bad  or  ugly" — "  wretched 
small" — "  miserable  little" — "  shameful" — "  scandalous" — "  tremendous" 
— "immense" — "in  the  name  of  wonder" — "curious" — "odd" — "shock- 
ing"— "mighty" — "most  outrageous" — "I  know" — "you  know" — "you 
understand" — "  I  am  sure" — "  says  he" — "  says  I" — "  thinks  I" — "  I  won- 
der"— "I  should  think" — "in  my  mind" — " as  I  may  dare  to  say." 

Certain  abbrematioTis  are 'Dulgar  and  ungraceful ;  as, 

"la'n't"— "a'n'tl"— "youa'n't"— a'n't  you"— "it  isn't"— "isn't  it" 
— "Til"— "they'U"-" you'll,"  &c.  So,  wasn't,  weren't,  can't,  shan't, 
doesn't,  don't,  didn't,  haven't,  mustn't,  shouldn't,  won't,  wouldn't, 
mayn't,  mightn't,  ouffhtn'U  <feo 


PROPRIETY   or   EXPRESSION.  171 

Certain  transpodtioiis  are  offences  against  propriety  ;  as, 

"  It  is  cold,  is  it  not  ? "  instead  of  Is  it  not  cold  ?— "  Having  not  consid- 
ered ;"  instead  of  Not  having  considered. — "  Some  ten  years  ago ;"  instead 
of  Ten  years  ago.—"  Will  it  do,  this  one  ?  "  instead  of  Will  this  one  do  ?— 
"  It  has  a  southern  aspect,  the  house  ;  "  instead  of  The  house  has  a  south- 
ern aspect. — "  An  old  selfish  man ;  "  instead  of  A  selfish  old  man. — "  A 
young  beautiful  woman  ; "  instead  of  A  beautiful  young  woman.— "A  new 
pair  of  gloves  ;"  instead  of  A  pair  of  new  gloves.— "An  old  suit  of  clothes ;'' 
instead  of  A  suit  of  old  clothes. — "  For  such  another  fault ;"  instead  of  For 
another  such  fault. — "  All  over  the  country ;"  instead  of  Over  all  the  coun* 
try. — "  He  is  an  intelligent  man,  is  he  not  ?  "  for  Is  he  not  an  intelligent 
man? — "You  prefer  this,  do  you  not?"  for  Do  you  not  prefer  this? — 
"  From  one  another ; "  instead  of  One  from  the  other. — "  Such  another 
occurrence ;  "  for  Another  such  occurrence,  &c. 

EuLE  VIII. — Guard  against  too  frequent  a  repetition  of 
the  same  mode  of  sjpeahing,  or  of  the  same  phrase  ;  as, 

(1.)  In  saying,  "  I  got  my  breakfast,  and  then  got  on  horseback, 
and  then  got  a  good  ride ; "  or,  (2.)  By  a  vulgar  mode  of  narrating 
circumstances  connected  in  time  and  place ;  as  in  saying, 

"My  friend  told  me  to  be  on  my  guard,  and  so  when  I  came  to  the 
place  where  the  danger  was,  I  looked  about  me  on  all  sides  ;  and  so,  when 
I  had  waited  several  minutes  and  did  not  sec  any  thing  to  alarm  me,  I  was 
about  to  go  on  ;  and  so,  when  I  had  just  taken  two  or  three  steps  more  I 
heard  a  sudden  outcry;  and  so,"  &c. 

(3.)  In  a  similarly  loose  and  ungraceful  manner,  any  trivial  con- 
junction is  sometimes  used,  when  a  reason,  motive,  or  cause,  is  as- 
signed for  something  going  before ;  as  in  saying, 

"  Let  us  never  put  ofi"  a  duty,  as  we  are  not  sure  whether  another  time 
for  it  may  ever  arrive ;  nor  ought  we  in  this  respect  to  follow  the  practice 
of  the  thoughtless,  as  they  are,  in  all  other  respects,  unfit  to  be  imitated; 
and  we  know  very  well  that  the  frequency  of  a  bad  practice  does  not  ius- 
tify  it,  as,  if  that  were  so,  every  vice  would  stand  excused." 

The  above  passages,  written  properly,  would  stand  thus 
"Having  taken  my  breakfast,  I  got  on  horseback,  and  had  a  good  ride." 
"My  friend  told,"  &c.,  "but  having  waited  several  minutes,  and  not 
seeing  any  thing  to  alarm  me,  I  was  about  to  go  on :  I  indeed  took  two  or 
three  steps  more,  when  I  heard  a  sudden  outcry;  on  which,"  &c. 

"  Let  us  never  put  off  a  duty :  we  are  not  sure  that  another  time  for  per- 
forming it  may  ever  arrive ;  and  we  ought  not  in  this  respect,  to  follow  the 
practice  of  the  thoughtless,  who  in  all  respects,  as  in  this,  are  unfit  to  be 


172  IMPROPRIETIES   OP   EXPRESSION. 

imitated  ;  nor  does  the  frequency  of  any  bad  practice  justify  it ;  since  li 
that  were  so,  every  vice  would  stand  excused." 

Exercises. 
Correct  and  improve  the  following  sentences,  by  avoid- 
ing a  loose  sameness  of  j)hrase,  particularly  of  those  phra- 
ses which  are  used  in  joining  smaller  into  larger  sentences: 

I  think  he  would  not  go  and  do  such  an  unkindness ;  though  if  he  did, 
I  would  not  go  into  a  passion  about  it,  nor  would  I  even  go  and  make 
complaints  against  him. 

He  set  off  running  as  hard  as  he  could ;  but  they  set  the  dogs  upon 
him ;  on  which  he  set  up  such  a  cry,  that  you  might  have  heard  him  a 
mile  off. 

As  he  had  got  no  money  when  he  began  the  business,  we  need  not  won- 
der at  his  having  got  on  so  slowly  for  a  time ;  but  he  has  now  got  the  start 
of  all  his  competitors,  and  no  doubt  he  will  maintain  the  advantage  got. 

If  you  will  only  put  me  in  the  right  way,  depend  upon  it  I  will  put  my 
best  foot  forward ;  nor  will  I  allow  myself  to  be  put  out  by  every  little 
obstacle,  but  press  steadily  forward,  till  put  in  possession  of  what  I  seek. 

As  he  took  nothing  but  water  to  drink,  the  fever  that  he  took  soon  after 
his  arrival,  took  but  little  effect  on  him,  and  he  soon  got  well,  though  he 
took  no  physic. 

A  fox  was  passing  through  a  vineyard,  and  so  he  saw  some  fine  bunches 
of  grapes  on  one  of  the  trees ;  so  he  tried  to  reach  one  of  them,  but  it 
hung  very  high,  and  so  he  could  not  get  it.  However,  he  kept  jumping 
at  it  a  long  time,  but  all  in  vain  ;  so  he  walked'  away,  saying,  as  he  went, 
"  Pooh  !  they  are  quite  sour." 

There  was  a  man  who  had  the  reputation  of  being  able  to  tell  people  all 
that  would  happen  to  them ;  and  this  man  chanced  to  do  something  that 
made  the  king  of  the  country  his  mortal  enemy ;  and  the  king  sent  to 
bring  the  man  before  him,  intending  to  question  him,  and  then  have  him 
hanged ;  and  when  the  man  was  brought  before  the  king,  the  king  said : 
"You  can  tell  the  fortunes  of  others,  can  you  tell  your  own?  Do  you 
know  on  what  day  you  will  die  ?"  And  the  man  considered  for  a  moment 
and  then  said:  "  I  do  not  know  on  what  day  I  shall  die,  but  I  know  thus 
much,  that  your  majesty  will  die  just  twenty-four  hours  after  myself." 
And  the  king  believing  him,  was  so  far  from  ordering  him  to  be  hanged, 
that  he  wished  him  in  his  heart  a  very  long  life ;  and  in  tliis  manner  the 
man,  by  his  cunning,  clever  answer,  saved  himself  from  the  death  which 
the  king  meant  for  him. 

I  write  to  you,  dear  friend  John,  to  ask  you  to  come  and  spend  to-mor- 
row with  me,  as  I  am  to  have  a  holiday;  and  I  know  you  can  come,  as  it 
is  a  holiday  at  every  school  in  the  county.  I  am  aware  you  are  busy, 
studying  for  the  examination  day  ;  but  this  will  not  matter  to  you,  as  you 
are  quicker  than  any  of  the  other  students  in  getting  ready  for  such  occa 


PRECISION   OF   EXPRESSION.  173 

flions.  We  can  amuse  ourselves  capitally  in  fishing,  as  I  have  bought  a 
complete  set  of  new  tackle;  and  I  am  sure  the  day  will  be  suitable,  as  the 
weather  has  been  settling  for  some  time.  Send  an  answer  by  the  bearer, 
as  1  long  to  be  out  of  my  state  of  uncertainty,  and  I  can  better  bear  a  dia- 
appomtnient  to-night,  if  I  must  be  disappointed,  than  await  it  till  to- 
morrow. 


LESSON  LXX. 


PRECISION    OF   EXPRESSION. 

An  expression  may  not  be  faulty  in  respect  to  purity  or 
propriety,  and  yet  wanting  in  precision^  which  implies  that 
there  is  no  redundance — that  no  more  words  and  phrases, 
however  pure  and  proper,  are  employed  than  are  necessary 
to  convey  the  sense  intended.  The  words  which  we  em- 
ploy may  express  the  idea  intended,  and  they  may  express 
it  fully,  that  is,  the  words  may  be  proper ;  but,  to  be  pre- 
cise^ they  must  express  that  idea  and  nothing  beyond  it. 

If  when  a  person  aims  to  convey  a  certain  idea,  he  says  or 
writes  more  than  is  needed  to  convey  it;  if  he  joins  some  foreign 
circumstance  to  the  principal  object;  if  by  unnecessarily  varying 
the  expression  he  changes  the  point  of  view,  and  causes  me  to  see. 
sometimes  the  object  itself,  and  sometimes  an  appendage  to  it,  I 
gain  no  clear  and  precise  idea. 

Thus,  when  an  author  speaks  of  his  hero's  courage  in  the  day  of  con- 
flict, the  expression  is  easily  and  clearly  understood  ;  but  if  from  a  desire 
to  express  the  quality  more  strongly,  he  sliould  praise  his  courage  and  for- 
titude, he  is  in  reality  expressing  two  qualities,  and  he  causes  the  mind  to 
waver  between  the  two,  as  these  are  quite  distinct ;  courage  being  that 
which  boldly  meets  danger,  while  fortitude  is  exercised  in  supporting  ua 
under  pain.     Thus  an  indistinct  and  feeble  conception  is  conveyed. 

All  subjects  do  not  demand  precision  in  their  treatment.  It  is 
often  sufficient  to  convey  only  a  general  view  of  the  meaning: 
but  the  practice  should  be  guarded  against,  of  those  who  bring 
together  an  assemblage  of  unmeaning  or  useless  words,  with  a 
view  to  express  their  thoughts  out  of  the  ordinary  track. 


174  PllECISION   OF   EXPRESSION. 

Rule  I. —  Use  words  in  their  precise  signification.  Care- 
less writers  too  often  employ  words  to  express  one  mean- 
ing, when  according  to  their  just  import  they  mean  some- 
thing different. 

Examples. — Ahove^  iox foregoing ;  as,  "The  ahotie  statement,"  instead  of 
*'  i\i%  foregoing  statement." 

Atop,  for  upon;  as,  "atop  of  the  table,"  instead  of  "  upon  the  table." 

Behind,  for  slow;  as,  "my  watch  is  behind,"  instead  of  "too  slow.'' 
The  expression  "  my  watch  is  standing,"  should  be  "has  stopped." 

Between  for  among,  and  vice  versa;  as,  "  Divide  it  between  all;"  "  Di- 
vide  it  among  both." 

In  for  within,  and  in  for  into;  as,  "  Is  your  father  inf''  instead  of,  "Is 
your  father  ^^'i^Am .?"  "  Put  it  iw- your  pocket,"  instead  of  "  Put  it  into 
your  pocket." 

Over  t'orof;  as  "  Overseer  over  his  house,"  instead  of  *  Overseer  ofh\» 
house." 

While  for  until;  as,  "  Wait  while  (until)  I  come." 

Jf  for  whether;  as,  "Inquire  */"  (whether)  he  called."  "Look  if 
(whether)  the  sun  shines." 

Wh£re  and  there  for  whither  and  thither;  as,  "  PTAer^  (whither)  are  you 
going  ?"     "  From  where  (whence)  does  he  come  ?"  &c. 

The  adverbs  when,  while,  how,  where,  for  the  nouns  tim£,  manner,  place  ; 
the  preposition  in  and  the  relative  which;  as,  "  Since  when  (which  time) 
I  have  not  seen  him."  "  It  is  not  worth  my  whiW^  (time).  "  Do  it  any 
how^^  {In  any  manner).  "A  little  while,^^  instead  of  "a  short  time." 
"  The  petition  where  (in  which)  it  is  stated." 

Mind,  for  attend  to;  as,  '•'-Mind  (attend  to)  your  book;"  "I  do  not  mind 
it"  (regard,  or  care  about  it) ;  "  I  had  no  mind  (inclination)  for  it ;"  "  J 
have  a  mind  (wish)  for  it,"  &c. 

Get,  got,  instead  of  have,  ohtain,  catch,  grow,  take,  become,  &c. ;  as,  "I 
have  got  some,"  instead  of  "  I  have  some."  "  To  get  (obtain)  a  place  or 
office  ;"  "  To  get  (catch)  a  cold  ;"  "  To  get  (grow)  bigger ;"  "  To  get  (take) 
dinner ;"  "  To  get  (rent)  a  house ;"  "  To  get  (purchase) ;"  "  To  get  (become) 
sick  " 

Lays,  laid,  for  lies,  lay,  and  vice  versa ;  as,  '*  he  lays  or  laid  down,"  in- 
stead of  "  he  lies  or  lay  down."  "  He  laid  (lay)  in  bed."  '•*■  Lie  (lay)  it 
down."    "  It  was  lain  (laid)  there." 

Sit  for  set,  and  vice  versa;  as,  "/S*^  (sit)  down."  '•'•  Sit  (set)  yourself 
down."     "  Sit  (set)  the  plant  in  the  ground,"  &c. 

Flee,  fled,  for  fly,  flew,  and  vice  versa;  as,  "The  enemy  flies"  (flees). 
"  Tlie  birds /6C?"  (flew). 

Mistaking,  for  mistaken,  and  vice  versa;  as,  "You  are  mistaken,"  for 
"You  mistake,^''  or,  '-''are  mistaking.''''  "I  was  mistakvng^''  (mistaken). 
The  phrase  "I  mistake,"  or  "am  mistaking,"  means  "I  misunderstand;" 
but,  "  I  am  mistaken,"  means  "I  am  misunderstood." 


PRECISION   OF   EXPRESSION.  175 

Exercises. 

The  erroneous  or  careless  forms  of  expression  quoted  in 
this  lesson  may  be  dictated  to  the  class,  that  they  may  pre- 
sent them  correctly,  in  a  written  form. 


LESSON  LXXI. 

PRECISION    OF    EXPRESSION. 

The  following  additional  examples  are  given  under 
Mule  I. ; 

Overflown  for  overflowed^  and  vice  versa;  as,  "The  river  was  overflown''' 
(had  overflowed). 

Misapplications  of  the  word^^^;  '*  Put  up  or  down  the  window"  should 
be  "  open  or  close,  or  push  down,  the  window." 

"  Put  (pour)  water  into  the  basin." — "  Put  (lay)  the  cloth  on  the  dining- 
table." — '^Put  down  (lay)  the  carpet  on  the  floor." — "  Put  (pour)  water  into 
the  cup." — "  Put  (take)  away  the  dinner-things." — "  Put  (lead)  the  horse 
into  the  stable." — "Put  (show)  the  stranger  into  the  parlor." — "Put  (set) 
the  passenger  down  at  the  turnpike." — "  Put  (place)  the  boy  into  the  first 
«^.lass." 

Turn^  for  to  hecome ;  as,  "  To  turn  (become  or  grow)  sick."^"  To  turn  or 
turn  over  (to  consider)  in  one's  mind." — "  To  turn  out  to  one's  mind" 
(not  to  disappoint  one). — Conceive^  for  to  couch',  as,  "  The  letter  was  con- 
ceived (couched)  in  these  words." — Maltreat  for  to  ill-use;  as,  "He  mal- 
treats (ill-uses)  his  family." — Propose^  for  to  purpose  ;  as,  "I  propose  (pur- 
pose) to  do  so." — Addtuie,  for  to  produce ;  as,  "He  adduced  (produced)  a 
proof." 

Pullj  for  gather  ;  as,  "  Pull  (gather)  the  grapes." — Tahe^  ^or  suppose  ;  as,  "  1 
take  it  (suppose)  that  you  are  better. — Hold,  for  adopt,  decide,  or  determine  ; 
as,  "He  holds  (adopts)  this  opinion." — The  judge  held  (decided  or  deter- 
mined) that,"  &c. — Pemember,  for  remind ;  as  "Remember (remind)  me  of 
that. — Appreciate,  for  to  prize  or  value;  as,  "  He  appreciates  (values)  learn- 
ing." 

7Vy,  for  to  make;  as,  "He  tried  (made)  the  experiment." — See,  for  to 
hear',  as,  "  Did  you  see  the  thunder  and  lightning?"  for  "Did  you  hear 
the  thunder  and  see  the  lightning?" — Throw  vp,  for  to  raise;  as,  "He 
tlirew  up  (raised)  his  eyes  towards  heaven." — Grow,  for  to  heconw. ;  as, 
"  Old  persons  grow  (become)  shorter." 


176  VIOLATIONS    OF   PRECISION. 

Bun,  for  leah ;  as,  "The  vessel  runs"  (leaks). — Lent,  for  arotoned ;  as, 
"  He  was  lost  (drowned)  in  the  river." — Learn,  for  teach  ;  as,  "  She  learna 
(teaches)  me." — I  know  of,  for  to  my  knowledge  ;  as,  '■'■Never,  as  I  know  off"* 
for  "  Never,  to  my  knowledge." 

Precision  is  also  violated  by  the  use  of 

Apparent,  for  obvious  ;— 'primary,  for primiti've  ; — universal,  for  general  ;— 
mutual,  for  common ; —pressing,  for  urgent; — dry,  for  thirsty  ; — readily,  for 
easily  ; — see,  for  perceive ; — recommend,  for  advise  ; — tell,  for  desire  / — look 
over,  for  examine  ; — undeniable,  for  unexceptionable,  or  unimpeachable  ; — 
witnessed,  for  beheld ; — nxime  or  notice,  for  mention  ; — mean,  for  intend ; — 
looked  for,  or  thought  for,  for  expected. 

The  following  expressio7is,  also,  lack  precision  : 

"To  extinguish  a  debt,"  for  "to  pay  a  debt ;" — "  To  take  a  fever,"  for 
"  to  be  seized  with,  or  attacked  by,  a  fever ;" — "  To  be  laid  up  with  ill- 
ness," for  "  to  be  confined  with  illness ;" — "  To  follow  out  a  plan,"  for  "  to 
execute  a  plan  ;" — "  To  follow  up  an  idea,"  for  "to  adopt  or  prosecute  an 
idea; — "To  follow  advice,"  for  "to  attend  or  listen  to  advice;" — To  lay 
one's  account  with,"  for  "  to  reckon  on  receiving  ;" — "  I  can  eat  no  more," 
for  "  I  cannot  eat  any  more  ;" — "  1  can  walk  no  more,"  for  "  I  can  walk  no 
further ;" — "  I  can  stay  no  longer,"  for  "  I  cannot  stay  any  longer ;" — "  To 
militate  against,"  for  "  to  oppose  ;" — "  To  speak  contemptibly  of  one,"  for 
"contemptuously;" — No  less  (fewer)  than  forty  persons; — "Far  prettier 
and  far  better,"  instead  of  "  much  prettier  and  much  better  ;" — There  is  a 
great  odds  (diiference)  in  their  accounts  ; — It  is  at  your  disposition  (disposal) ; 
— In  no  event  (case) ; — Further  (future)  forms  or  orders ; — He  is  very  bad 
(ill); — "He  has  been  long  ailing,"  for  "he  has  been  sickly  for  some 
time  ;" — A  finely  tasted  (flavored)  ^^ar  ; — /  hve  (like)  good  living  ; — To  do 
(transact)  business  ; — Take  which  you  like  (choose); — To  furnish  (supply) 
goods  ; — "  To  be  made  much  of,"  for  "  to  be  much  caressed  or  indulged  ; — 
•'  The  crop  promises  to  be  large,"  for  "  the  crop  has  the  appearance  of 
being  plentiful;" — "Like  to  have  slipped,"  for  "nearly  slipped;" — I 
rather  think,"  for  "I  believe;" — "I  had  better  go,"  for  *ilt  were  better 
that  I  should  go;" — He  is  of tener  (more  frequently)  right  than  wrong; — 
"  The  then  judge  of,"  for  "  the  judge  at  the  time ;" — "  He  is  a  rising  man," 
for  "  he  is  rising  rapidly ;" — "  She  is  a  superior  woman,"  for  "  she  is  a  wo- 
man superior  to  most." 

The  following  expressions,  also,  are  deficient  in  gram 
matical  precision ;  for  neuter,  or  intransitive  verbs,  cannot 
be  compounded  of  the  auxiliary  verb  to  he. 

The  storm  is  (has)  ceased. — They  are  (have)  arrived. — He  is  (has)  de- 
parted.—They  were  (had)  come. — The  men  are  (have)  deserted. — He  is 


VIOLATIONS    OF   PRECISION.  177 

(has)  entered  into  a  new  concern. — Who  originated  this  motion  ?  for,  From 
whom  did  this  motion  originate? 

The  subjoined  phrases  are  not  precise  in  the  form  of  expression: 

Lodgings  to  let ;  for,  Lodgings  to  be  let. — A  house  to  sell ;  for,  A  house 
to  be  sold.— He  was  paid  the  money ;  for,  The  money  was  paid  to  him. — 
He  was  allowed  ten  per  cent. ;  for,  Ten  per  cent,  was  allowed  him. — They 
were  promised  it ;  for,  It  was  promised  to  them. — She  was  offered  it ;  for, 
It  was  offered  to  her. 

The  above  changes  become  necessary,  for  the  reason 
that  active  verbs  cannot  be  used  so  as  to  imply  a  passive 
signification ;  nor  passive  verbs,  an  active  signification. 

Exercises. 

Let  the  numerous  forms  of  expression,  cited  in  this  les- 
son, be  dictated  to  the  class,  and  by  them  be  written  with 
precision. 


LESSON  LXXII. 

PRECISION   OF   EXPRESSION. 

Rule  II. — Avoid  expressions  that  want  meaning^  or 
border  on  what  may  be  denominatedj  nonsensical  y  as  the 
following : 

Almost  nothing  ;  instead  of.  Scarcely  any  thing,  very  little,  or  little  or 
nothing. — Almost  never  •  for,  Very  seldom,  or  Seldom  or  never. — The  two 
first — the  two  last  ^  instead  of,  the  first  two — the  last  two. — To  speah  three 
sentences  together  ;  for.  To  speak  three  sentences  in  succession. — Douhle- 
hedded  ;  for,  two-bedded. —  To  enjoy  a  bad  state  of  health  ;  for.  To  have,  or 
be  in,  bad  health. — To  fall  sick  ;  for,  To  grow,  or  become  sick. — To  find 
pain  ;  for.  To  feel  pain. — To  meet  another'' s  idea  ;  for,  To  coincide  in  opin- 
ion.— He  reads  best  of  any  boy ;  for.  He  reads  better  than  any  other  boy,  or 
Lhe  best  of  all  the  boys. — Of  all  others  he  is  the  most  trustworthy  ;  for.  Of  all 
persons  he  is  the  most  trustworthy. — There  were  four  ladies,  every  one 
prettier  than  another. — Discontinued  for  many  years  together. — To  fall  into  a 
man^ 8  conversation  ;  for,  To  fall  into  conversation  with  a  man. — To  animad- 
veit  on  the  false  taste  the  toum  is  in  ;  for,  of  the  town. — /  had  Uhe  to  havi 
gotten  one  or  two  broken  heads  for,  I  was  once  or  twice  like  to  have  gotten 
a  br  )ken  head. 


178  VIOLATIONS   OF   PEECISION. 

Rule  III. — Avoid  superfluous  words  and  expressions  y 
as, 

Acquiesce  and  rest  satisfied  with  ;— BourirJs  and  limits  ; — Acknowledge 
and  confess ; — Clear  and  obvious ;— Plain  and  evident ; — Advise  and  coun- 
sel ; — Confused  and  disordered ; — Corruption  and  degeneracy  ;— Courage 
and  resolution  ; — Effects  and  consequences  ; — Fears  and  apprehensions  ; — 
Assemble  and  meet  together  ; — Dissemble  and  cloak  ; — Friendly  and  ami- 
sable  ; — Governed  and  conducted  ; — Intents  and  purposes  ; — Mild  and 
meek  ; — Obliged  and  indebted ; — Obviate  and  prevent : — Pleasure  and  sat 
isfaction ; — Safest  and  securest ; — Special  and  particular ; — Support  and 
btay  ; — Wavering  and  unsettled; — Worship  and  adoration; — Support  and 
bear  up  ; — Positive  and  peremptory  ; — Certain  and  confident ; — They  have 
a  mutual  dislike  to  each  other  ; — When  will  you  return  again  ? — They  re- 
mrned  back  again  to  the  same  city  whence  they  came  forth. 

While  superfluous  words  and  phrases  are^  in  general^  to 
he  avoided  as  unnecessary^  and  enfeebling  to  style^  it  is 
singidar  that  in  not  a  few  cases  they  have  a  fine  rhetorical 
effect^  being  prompted  by  natural  feeling,  and  in  such  cases 
are  to  be  used.  Sometimes  a  series  of  words  and  expres- 
sions, similar  or  equivalent  in  import,  adds  force  and  inten- 
sity to  the  thoughts  thus  expressed.  Thus  Cicero,  speaking 
of  Catiline,  said :  ^'Abiit,  excessit^  evasit^  erupiV  (He  has 
gone,  he  has  vanished,  he  has  escaped,  he  has  sallied  forth) ; 
a  form  of  expression  thus  rendered  exceedingly  graphic 
and  striking. 

The  Scripture  also  abounds  in  redundant  forms  of  expression, 
that  are  nevertheless  possessed  of  great  force  and  of  beauty  ;  thus, 
"  Answered  and  said  ;" — ''  Shook  and  trembled  ;" — "  Poor  and 
needy;" — "Fearful  and  afraid;" — "Old  and  stricken  in  years ;" — 
"Length  of  days  and  long  life ;" — "Hear  my  voice,  give  ear  unto 
my  speech  ;" — "  Perfect  and  entire,  wanting  nothing  ;" — "  God  is 
light;  in  Him  is  no  darkness;" — "He  was  a  man  of  sorrow,  and 
acquainted  with  grief;" — "  Enter  not  into  the  path  of  the  wicked, 
and  go  not  into  the  way  of  wicked  men;" — "  While  I  live,  will  I 
praise  the  Lord :  I  will  sing  praises  to  my  God  while  I  have  a 
being." 

Tliese  beautiful  forms  of  Hebrew  poetry,  called  the  Parallelism, 
where  the  same  thought  is  repeated  in  somewhat  varied  phrase- 


PLEONASTIC   EXPRESSIONS.  179 

ology,  is  a  distingaishing  beauty,  and  is  to  be  justified  on  tlie  prin- 
ciple that  such  is  the  natural  utterance  of  a  glowing  and  devout 
mind. 

Of  the  same  sort  is  the  sentiment,  '^The  Lord  is  my  rock,  and 
my  fortress,  and  my  deliverer;"  while  each  clause  means,  indeed, 
the  same  thing,  taken  together  the  clauses  furnish  a  more  com- 
plete and  natural  expression  of  the  pious  sentiment  conveyed. 

Pleonastic  or  redundant  forms  of  speech  may  be  advantageously 
and  properly  employed,  when  we  wish  to  make  peculiarly  earnest 
affirmations  on  subjects  of  special  importance  ;  thus, 

"  I  have  spoken  with  my  mouth ;" — "  I  have  seen  with  mine  eye ;" — "  1 
have  heard  with  mine  ears ;"  "  I  have  handled  with  my  hands ;" — "  The 
hearing  ear,  the  seeing  eye." 

The  following  pleonastic  expressions  require  pruning : 

First  aggressor  ; — first  of  all ; — last  of  all ;— not  at  all ; — subject-matter  ; 
— latter  end  ; — personal  interview  ; — old  veteran  ; — false  traitor  ; — another 
one  ; — standard  pattern  ; — verdant  green  ; — sylvan  forest ; — umbrageous 
shade  ; — nobody  else ; — widow-woman  ; — from  hence  ; — from  whence  ;— 
since  the  time ; — unloose  ; — fainted  away  ; — formed  out  of; — mention  over 
again ; — substitute  in  the  place  of ; — read  twice  over ; — equally  the  same ; — 
Bhrink  smaller ; — a  twelvemonth  to  come ; — filled  full ; — some  ten  years 
ago  ; — these  six  months  past ; — they  both  met ; — they  met  together ; — no 
other  person  besides ; — leisure  on  one's  hands  ; — throughout  the  whole 
of; — the  universal  esteem  of  all  men; — a  universal  panacea; — best  calcu- 
lated of  all  others ; — to  marry  a  wife ; — a  very  just  and  upright  man ; — the 
pleasures  of  imagination  are  more  preferable  than  those  of  sense  or  intel- 
lect ; — the  very  slightest  singularity. 

Exercises. 

1.  Change  to  a  precise  written  form,  the  faulty  expres- 
sions introduced  into  this  Lesson. 

2.  Clear  the  following  sentences  of  redundant  words  : 

1.  Smoke  ascends  up  into  the  sky.  2.  He  had  the  only  copy  then  ex- 
tant. 3.  He  gave  me  the  horse  for  nothing.  4.  I  wis>  you  would  send 
the  paper  free  gratis.  5.  She  writes  very  well  for  a  new  beginner.  6.  I 
saw  him  down  in  the  basement  room.  7.  You  did  not  tell  me  where  to 
stop  at.  8.  At  the  sound  of  the  last  final  trump  the  dead  shall  rise. 
9.  Have  you  got  a  hammer?  10.  Hence,  consequently,  he  must  be  in 
^rror.     11.  He  made  the  case  very  plain  and  obvious. 

12.  He  was  universa/.y  lamented  by  all.     13.  Learn  from  hence  to  he 


180  REDUNDANT  WORDS. 

more  carelnl.  14.  The  child  fell  into  a  kettle  of  boiling  hot  water.  15.  Min* 
gle  together  vinegar  and  molasses.  16.  1  doubt  not  but  that  he  will  come. 
17.  I  thought  to  myself  that  I  must  die.  18.  As  soon  as  the  clock  struck 
six  I  rose  up.  19.  He  came  for  to  see  me.  20.  He  would  not  accept  ol  ^.he 
office. 


LESSON  LXXIII. 

PRECISION    OF   EXPRESSION. SYNONYMS. 

A  want  of  precision  in  the  use  of  the  preposition  (which 
may  be  omitted),  is  exemplified  in  the  following  phrases : 

To  enter  into  ; — to  ascend  up  ; — to  descend  down  ; — to  lift  up  ; — to  raise 
up  ; — to  return  back  ; — to  restore  back  ; — to  return  again ; — to  retreat 
back : — to  plunge  down ; — to  follow  after; — to  cover  up  ; — to  cover  over; — 
to  gather  together  ; — to  combine  together  ; — to  converse  together  ; — to 
scrutinize  into  ; — to  kill  off; — I  am  a-going; — I  am  a-coming; — She  is  a- 
singing ; — We  are  a-writing ; — He  is  a-fishing; — they  are  a-talking ; — worth 
a  sixpence  ; — dignity  of  a  baronet. 

Add  to  these  tautological  examples,  the  following: 

But  however; — and  further; — yet  nevertheless  ; — the  old  original  house; 
— the  best  extra  superfine  ; — a  real  capital  good  one  ; — mutually  friendly 
disposition  to  each  other ; — can  possibly  set  apart ; — &c. 

Thus,  it  appears,  that  in  a  literary  as  well  as  moral  sense,  the 
saying  of  the  wise  man  is  true  :  ''  In  the  multitude  of  words  there 
wanteth  not  sin." 

Rule  IV. — Avoid  the  use  of  words  as  synonymous^  that 
approach  to  one  another  in  meaning^  as  expressing  the 
same  principal  idea  /  hut  which^  from  their  derivation^ 
have  a  different  meaning  in  their  more  exact  avid  particu- 
lar signification. 

Such  words  arp  the  following : 

Abhor  and  detest ; — abandon,  forsake,  relinquish,  give  up ; — desert,  quit, 
and  leave  ; — adjacent  and  contiguous  ; — alleviate  and  lessen  ; — aver,  asserl:, 
and  declare  ; — avow,  acknowledge,  and  confess  ; — austerity,  severity,  and 
ligor ; — authentic  and  genuine  ; — capacity  and  ability  ; — custom  and  habit ; 
dr\8isl,  renounce,  quit,  and  leave  off; — difficulty  and  obstacle ; — distingui.'^h 


SYNONYMS.  181 

and  separate  ; — enough  and  sufficient ; — entire  and  complete  ; — equivocal 
and  ambiguous ; — haughtiness  and  disdain ; — invent  and  discover ; — only 
and  alone  ; — pride  and  vanity  ; — reformation  and  reform  ; — remark  and 
observe ; — surprised,  astonished,  amazed,  and  confounded ; — tranquillity, 
peace,  and  calm  ; — wisdom  and  prudence  ; — sole  and  only ; — over  and 
besides,  &c. 

Such  vrords  as  the  above  are  employed  by  careless  writers,  either 
as  if  they  were  of  precisely  the  same  signification,  or  for  the  sake  of 
filling  up  a  sentence,  or  to  display  copiousness  of  diction.  Certain 
cases  arise  in  which  two  or  more  of  these  synonyms  may  be  com- 
bined with  propriety  and  advantage.  Like  different  shades  of  the 
same  color,  they  may  be  employed,  occasionally,  to  heighten  and 
finish  the  picture  we  are  producing.  This  is  allowable,  chiefly, 
when  writing  under  the  inspiration  of  passion. 

Thus,  in  the  severe  invective  of  Bolingbroke  on  his  own  times,  "  But 
all  is  little,  and  low,  and  mean  among  us,"  the  amplification,  from  the 
use  of  these  nearly  synonymous  words,  produces  a  stronger  expression 
of  indignation  than  would  have  been  conveyed  by  any  one  of  the  three 
epithets  employed. 

Before  proceeding  to  explain  and  illustrate  the  synonyms  referred 
to  above,  or  others,  attention  is  here  called  to  some  excellent  re- 
marks of  Dr.  Trench,  of  London,  upon  the  advantages  to  he  derived 
from  the  habit  of  distinguishing  synonyms : 

How  great  a  part  of  true  wisdom  it  is  to  distinguish  between  things 
that  differ,— things  seemingly,  but  not  really  alike!  This  is  remarkably 
attested  by  our  words  "  discernment"  aud  "  discretion,"  which  are  now 
used  as  equivalent,  the  first  to  "  insight,"  the  second  to  "  prudence ;" 
while  yet  in  their  earlier  usage,  and  according  to  their  etymology,  being 
both  from  "  discerno,"  they  signify  the  power  of  so  seeing  things,  that 
in  the  seeing  we  distinguish.and  separate  them  one  from  another.  Such 
were  originally  "  discernment"  and  ''  discretion,"  aud  such,  in  a  great 
measure,  they  are  still. 

What  a  help  moreover  will  it  prove  to  the  writing  of  a  good  English 
style,  if  instead  of  having  many  words  before  us,  and  choosing  almost  at 
random  from  among  them,  we  at  once  know  which,  and  which  only,  we 
ought  in  the  case  before  us  to  employ,  which  will  be  the  exact  vesture  of 
our  thoughts  !  It  is  the  first  characteristic  of  a  well-dressed  man  that  his 
clothes  fit  him ;  and  it  is  precisely  such  a  prime  characteristic  of  a  good  style 
that  the  words  fit  close  to  the  thoughts.  You  do  not  feel  in  one  place  that  the 
writer  means  more  than  he  has  succeeded  in  saying ;  in  another,  that  he 
has  said  more  than  he  means  ;  or  in  a  third,  something  besides  what  his 


182  EXERCISES   ON   SYNONYMS. 

Int  3ntion  was ;  and  all  this  from  a  lack  of  dexterity  in  employing  the  instru  • 
ment  of  language,  of  precision  in  knowing  what  words  would  be  the  ex- 
actest  correspondents  and  fittest  exponents  of  his  thought. 

This  power  of  saying  exactly  what  we  mean,  and  neither  more  nor  less 
than  we  mean,  is  not  merely  an  elegant  mental  accomplishment,  it  has  a 
moral  meaning  as  well.  It  is  nearly  allied  to  morality,  inasmuch  as  it  is 
r.carly  connected  with  truthfulness.  Every  man  who  has  himself  in  any 
degree  cared  for  the  truth,  and  occupied  himself  in  seeking  it,  is  more  or 
less  aware  how  much  of  the  falsehood  in  the  world  passes  current  under 
the  concealment  of  words,  how  many  strifes  and  controversies  find  all  or 
nearly  all  their  fuel  in  words  carelessly  or  dishonestly  employed.  Ask, 
then,  words  what  they  mean,  that  you  may  deliver  yourselves  and  others 
from  the  tyranny  of  words  and  from  the  strife  of  "  word- warriors."  Learn 
to  distinguish  between  them,  for  you  have  the  authority  of  Hooker,  that 
*'the  mixture  of  those  things  by  speech,  which  by  nature  are  divided,  is 
the  mother  of  all  error." 

Exercises. 

1.  Collect^  from  memory^  all  the  synonyms  of  a  given 
vjord  that  may  be  assigned ;  then  hunt  in  a  dictionary  for 
all  the  additional  synonyms  that  properly  belong  to  the 
given  word. 

2.  As  suggested  by  Prof.  W.  Russell,  exemplify  the 
proper  use  of  the  synonyms  thus  collected,  "  by  introdu- 
cing each  in  a  phrase  or  sentence  in  which  the  context  is  ol 
such  a  character  that  no  other  member  of  the  same  family 
of  synonyms  can  be  substituted  for  it,  without  injury  to 
the  form  of  expression,  in  the  whole  clause  in  which  it 
occurs." 


LESSON    LXXIV. 

PRECISION   OF   EXPRESSION. — SYNONYMS   EXPLAINED   AND 
ILLUSTRATED. 

(1.)  To  hate^  to  abhor ^  to  detest^  to  dislike^  to  he  averse 
to^  to  have  a  repugnance  to. 

To  be  averse  to,  denotes  to  have  the  mind  turned  away  from  a  thing  afi 
disagreeable  ;  ant'i/pathi/.  means  a  feeling  entertained  against  some  object ;  ic 


SYNONYMS    EXPLAINED.  183 

dislike^  means  not  to  like  or  to  be  attached  to ;  repugnance,  means  the  lesist* 
ance  of  the  feelings  to  an  object ;  to  hate,  is  to  have  one's  temper  excited 
against  a  person ;  to  detest,  is  to  witness  against,  to  condemn  with  indigna- 
tion ;  to  abhor,  is  to  start  from  with  an  emotion  of  horror. 

One  hates,  but  does  not  detest,  the  person  who  has  done  an  injury  to  one's 
self;  and  one  detests  rather  than  hates  the  person  who  has  done  injury  to 
others.  To  abhor,  implies  strong  dislike ;  to  detest,  expresses  strong  disap- 
probation. We  abhor  being  in  debt ;  we  detest  treachery.  We  abhor  what 
is  inhuman  and  cruel ;  we  detest  crimes  and  injustice. 

(2.)  Abandon^  leave^  forsake^  relinquish^  surrender  or 
give  up^  desert^  quit. 

We  leave  what  may  be  resumed,  as  any  particular  employment;  we 
abandon  those  who  are  entirely  dependent  for  protection  and  support ;  so 
we  abandon  what  is  finally  given  up,  as  a  sinking  ship,  a  burning  house, 
or  any  form  of  vice ;  we  desert  those  with  whom  we  have  entered  into 
coalition,  or  we  desert  what  ought  to  be  adhered  to ;  we  forsake  those  with 
whom  we  have  been  intimate.  We  reliriquish  an  object  of  value,  or  pur- 
suit—a  claim — the  hope  of  reward.  A  parent  abandons  his  child ;  a  man 
forsakes  his  friend,  or  place  of  usual  resort ;  a  soldier  deserts  his  comrades ; 
a  partisan,  his  party ;  a  man  relinquishes  pretensions  to  an  office  in  favor 
of  another,  surrenders  or  gives  up  a  place  of  trust,  leaves  his  parents  in  afflic- 
tion, and  quits  his  country. 

(3.)  Adjacent^  adjoining^  co?itiguous. 

Adjacent  means  lying  near,  without  touching ;  adjoining  and  contiguous, 
not  only  near,  but  joined  to,  touching  in  some  part.  We  may  speak  of 
adjacent  villages  or  lands,  adjoining  fields,  contiguous  buildings.  Adjacent 
places,  may  have  something  intervening. 

(4.)  Amazed^  astonished^  surprised^  perplexed^  confound- 
ed, confused. 

We  are  amazed  at  what  is  marvellous,  frightful,  or  incomprehensible ; 
astonished  at  what  is  grand  and  striking;  perplexed,  confounded,  or  con- 
fused at  what  is  embarrassing  and  intricate ;  surprised  at  what  is  unex- 
pected. 

(5.)  Assent^  consent^  allow ^  concede.,  acknowledge. 

We  assent  to  the  truth  of  a  proposition  or  statement ;  we  consent  to  a 
proposal  or  scheme ;  we  acknowledge  the  beauty  of  an  object ;  we  acknowl- 
tdge  a  fault,  a  mistake,  a  favor ;  we  concede  what  is  claimed  or  demanded ; 
we  allow  what  is  asked. 

(6.)  Avow^  confess. 

We  avow  (declare  openly)  our  principles,  our  attachment,  or  opposition; 


184  SYNONYMS    EXPLAINED. 

"we  confess  a  wrong,  a  sin,  a  crime,  while  we  acknowledge  a  small  degree  oi 
delinquency. 

(7.)  Aver^  assert^  affirm^  declare. 

We  declare  (make  known)  a  fact  or  opinion ;  we  affi/rm  a  fact ;  assert  a 
truth,  a  right,  a  claim,  that  may  have  been  denied ;  we  maintain  a  truth, 
or  any  position  taken,  when  it  is  opposed ;  we  affirm^  with  confidence ;  we 
aver^  when  we  declare  in  a  positive  determined  manner  our  opinions. 

(8.)  Austerity^  sternness^  strictness^  severity^  rigor. 

Strictness  or  rigor ^  is  applied  to  exactness  in  the  observance  of  rules  and 
administration  of  discipline  ;  severity^  implies  a  readiness  to  inflict  punish- 
ment ;  sternness  and  austerity^  relate  to  harsh  manners,  and  a  self-denying 
forbidding  mode  of  living.  An  austere  judge  is  one  who  punishes  slight 
offences ;  a  severe  ^wdgQ  punishes  to  the  utmost ;  a  rlgoroiis  ^ndigQ  punishes 
without  respect  to  persons  punished,  or  to  applications  for  pardon. 

(9.)  Avoids  shun^  escape^  elude^  eschew^  evade. 

To  avoid,  is  to  keep  away  from ;  to  shun,  is  to  turn  from.  We  avoid, 
from  prudence ;  we  shun,  from  dislike,  or  abhorrence,  or  fear ;  we  escape 
(flee)  from  danger;  we  elude  (avoid  by  skill  or  artifice)  pursuit  and  pun- 
ishment ;  we  escheto  (keep  out  of  the  way  of)  evil ;  we  shu^n  vice ;  we  avoid 
the  drinking-saloon. 

(10.)  Absolve^  acquit,  exonerate. 

To  absolve,  is  to  let  loose  from  something  that  binds— from  guilt,  or  its 
consequence,  punishment;  to  acquit,  is  to  release  from  a  legal  charge, 
upon  trial  and  judicial  decision;  to  exonerate,  is  to  relieve  from  a  bond,  as 
of  debt,  or  some  unfavorable  imputation. 

(11.)  Accuse,  arraign,  blame,  censure,  impeach. 

We  hlame  or  censure  a  man  for  what  is  wrong  in  conduct ;  accuse  him  ot 
crime  ;  charge  him  with  an  ofi'ence ;  arraign  him  for  trial ;  impeach  him  for 
crime  against  civil  government. 

(12.)  Attain,  obtain,  acquire. 

To  obtain^  is  to  get  possession  of  a  thing  ;  to  attain,  is  to  reach  after,  or 
arrive  at,  the  possession  of  what  is  sought ;  to  acquire,  is  to  gain  posses- 
sion in  a  progressive  and  gradual  method.  We  speak  of  the  acquirement 
of  knowledge,  or  of  a  language ;  of  the  acquisition  of  property  or  wealth ; 
and  of  the  attainment  of  salvation. 

(13.)  Ability,  capacity,  talent. 

Caj:acity,  is  the  mind's  susceptibility  of  receiving  impressions ;  abiliiy,  iH 
Ihe  power  of  making  active  and  successful  exertions.    The  former  i;?  the 


EXERCISES    ON    SYNONYMS.  186 

gift  of  God ;  the  latter  is  the  result  of  education  and  of  effort.  The  for- 
mer enables  us  to  devise,  the  latter  to  execute,  a  great  enterprise. 

(14.)  Add^  annex^  increase^  join  to^  subjoin. 

We  add  quantities  or  numbers  ;  we  join  house  to  house ;  we  annex  ter- 
ritory ;  we  increase  property  ;  we  subjoin  (add  to  the  end)  an  after-thought^ 
another  particular. 

(15.)  Admits  allow ^  grants  permit. 

We  admit  (receive)  a  thing  as  right  or  true ;  we  admit  the  force  of  rea- 
soning ;  we  admit  a  member  into  some  society  or  council ;  we  receive  a 
friend  into  our  house  ;  we  concede  or  grant  what  is  demanded  or  claimed ; 
we  grant  what  we  consider  reasonable ;  we  allow  what  we  suffer  to  take 
place  ;  we  allow  a  person  to  perform  a  given  act  when  we  do  not  hinder 
him,  or  when  we  say  he  may  do  it ;  we  permit  an  act,  when  we  consent 
to  its  performance. 

Exercises. 

1.  Write  sentences  that  shall  embrace  each  of  the  lore- 
going  synonymous  words  in  their  appropriate  and  peculiar 
senses,  as  explained  and  illustrated. 

2.  Supply  the  blanks  in  the  following  passages  with  the 
words  that  are  appropriate.  The  bracketed  figures  refer 
to  the  classes  of  synonyms  explained : 

(2.) — 1.  Few  animals  except  man  will their  young  until  they  are  en^ 

abled  to  provide  for  themselves.     2.  When by  our  dearest  relations, 

by  our  friends,  and by  the  world,  we  have  always  a  resource  in 

our  Creator.    3.  He  drove  his  acquaintance  from  his  table,  and  wondered 

why  he  was 4.  me  not  thus,  Adam  !     {Milton.)    5.  A  captain 

may his  vessel  when  he  has  no  means  of  saving  it ;  but  an  upright 

statesman  will  never his  post  when  his  country  is  in  danger,  nor  a 

true  soldier his  colors.  6.  Birds  will their  nests  when  they  dis- 
cover them  to  have  been  visited.    7.  Men  often 

(3.) — 1.  They  have  been  beating  up  for  recruits  at  York  and  the  towns 

;  but  nobody  will  enlist.    2.  As  he  has  no  estate equal  to  his  own, 

his  oppressions  are  borne  without  resistance.  3.  We  arrived  at  a  wood 
which  lay to  a  plain. 

(1.) — 1.  The  chaste  Lucretia the  pollution  to  which  she  had  been 

exposed.     2.  Brutus the  oppression  and  the  oppressor.     3.  The  lie 

that  flatters  I the  most.     iGowpei-.)    4.  A  man  does  not  dread  harm 

from  an  insect  or  a  worm,  but  his turns  him  pale  when  tliey  approach 

him.     5.  One  punishment  that  attends  the  liar  is  the of  all  those 


186  EXERCISES   ON   SY]$JONYMS. 

whom  he  has  deceived.  6.  In  this  dilemma  Aristophanes  conquered  his 
and  determined  to  present  himself  on  the  stage. 

(7.)  Among  ladies  he  positively that  nonsense  was  the  most  pre- 
vailing part  of  eloquence. 

(8.) — 1.  It  is  not  by discipline  and  nnrelaxing that  the  aged 

can  maintain  an  ascendency  over  youthful  minds.  2. is  the  proper  an- 
tidote to  indulgence  ;  the  diseases  of  the  mind  as  well  as  body  are  cured 
by  contraries.  8.  If  you  are  liard  in  your  judgments, in  your  cen- 
sures, then,  &c. 

(9.) — 1.  Prudence  enables  us  to many  of  the  evils  to  which  we  are 

daily  exposed.     2.  A  fixed  principle  of  religion  is  needed  to  enable  a  man 

to the  temptations  to  evil  which  lie  in  his  path.     8.  Fear  will  lead  us 

to a  madman.  4.  A  want  of  principle  leads  a  man  to his  cred- 
itors, whom  he  wishes  to  defraud.     5.  The  best  means  of quarrels,  is 

to giving  offence.     6.  The  surest  preservative  of  innocence  is  to ■ 

bad  company,  and  the  surest  preservative  of  health  is  to every  in- 
temperate practice.     7.  Those  who  have  no  evil  design  in  view  will  have 

no  occasion  to the  vigilance  of  the  law. 

8.  The  wary  Trojan,  bending  from  the  blow, 
the  death,  and  disappoints  his  foe.  {Pope.) 

(12.) — 1.  A  genius  is  never  to  be by  art,  but  is  the  gift  of  nature. 

2.  Kules  for happiness  are  not  so  necessary  as  the  arts  of  consola- 
tion. 8.  People  may  expect  to  make  but  slender without  a  consider- 
able share  of  industry  ;  and  in  such  case  they  will  be  no to  the  com- 
munity.   4.  To  learn  a  language  is  an ;  to  win  a  province,  an . 

5.  The of  literature  far  exceed  the of  fortune.     6.  We  always  go 

©n ,  but  we  stop  when  we  have . 

(18.) — 1.  Sir  Francis  Bacon's grasped  all  that  was  revealed  in  books 

oefore.    2.  The  object  is  too  big  for  our .    8.  Though  a  man  has  not  the 

to  distinguish  himself  in  the  most  shining  parts  of  a  great  character ; 

he  has  certainly  the of  being  jnst,  faithful,  modest,  and  temperate. 

(5,  6.)  Candor  leads  to  our ;  repentance  produces  a ;  generosity 

or  pride  occasions  an . 

(11.) — 1.  Aristogiton,  with  revengeful  cunning, several  courtiers  of 

the  tyrant.     2.  Oh  I  the  horror  that  will  seize  a  poor  sinner,  when  he 

stands at  the  bar  of  divine  justice  !     3.  Our  Saviour  was before 

Pilate,  and  creatures  in  the  madness  of  presumption their  Creator. 

4.  It  is  extremely  wrong  to another  without  sufficient  grounds,  but 

still  worse  to him  without  the  most  substantial  grounds.     5.  We  — — 

a  person  of  murder;  we  him  with  dishonesty.     6.  Mr.  Locke  

those  of  great  negligence  who  discourse  of  moral  things  obscurely. 


SYNONYMS   EXPLAINED.  i       187 


LESSON   LXXV. 

PRECISION   CF   EXPRESSION. — USE   OF   SYNONYMS. 

(1.)  Absorbed^  engrossed. 

We  are  absorbed  in  grief;  we  are  engrossed  in  business. 

(2.)  Bestow^  grants  present^  offer ^  &g, 

"We  grant  permission,  bestow  charity,  present  compliments,  oj'er  an  apol- 
ogy, afford  protection,  confer  a  favor,  concede  a  right,  and  accord  considera- 
tion. 

(3.)    Consent^  comply.,  &g. 

We  consent  to  a  proposal,  comply  with  a  desire,  accede  to  a  request,  and 
acquiesce  in  a  decision. 

(4.)  Abstain.,  forbear.,  &c.  ♦ 

We  abstain  from  an  indulgence,  forbear  to  enforce  a  right,  refrain  from 
committing  an  injury,  and  withstand  a  temptation. 

(5.)  Behavior.,  conduct.,  &c. 

Behavior  refers  to  actions  that  fall  under  the  notice  of  others ;  conduct 
regards  our  moral  proceedings  generally,  whether  observed  or  not.  Gar- 
riage^  deportment,  and  demeanor,  are  different  species  of  behavior. 

(6.)    Clear,  distinct. 

We  see  an  object  clearly  when  we  are  able  to  form  a  correct  idea  of  its 
general  figure  or  appearance  ;  we  see  it  disti/nctly  when  we  can  fairly  dis- 
tinguish its  parts. 

(7.)   Custom.,  habit. 

Custom  refers  to  the  action  ;  habit,  to  the  agent.  Custom  expresses  tne 
frequent  repetition  of  the  same  act ;  habit  expresses  the  effect  which  such 
repetition  produces  on  the  mind  or  body  of  the  agent.  A  <mstom  is  fol- 
lowed ;  a  habit  is  acquired.  Custom  is  voluntary ;  habit  implies  an  invol- 
untary movement. 

(8.)  Desist.,  renounce.,  &c.  * 

We  desist,  from  difficulty  in  our  task ;  we  renounce  an  object  or  pursuit, 
when  disagreeable ;  we  quit,  for  the  sake  of  a  more  interesting  object  of 
])ursuit ;  and  we  leave  off,  from  becoming  weary  of  the  design. 


188  SYNONYMS. 

(9.)  Difficulty^  obstacle^  &g. 

A  diffimlty^  is  something  not  easy  to  do  ;  an  obstacle^  is  something  thai 
stands  in  our  way ;  an  impediment^  signifies  something  entangling  to  our 
feet.  The  difficulty  lies  in  the  thing  itself,  the  obstacle  and  impediment  in 
what  is  external  to  it.  The  first  hinders  the  completion  of  a  work,  the 
second  hinders  the  attainment  of  an  end,  the  third  interrupts  the  progress 
of  our  efforts.  We  speak  of  encountering  a  difficulty^  of  surmounting  an 
obstacle^  and  removing  an  impediment.  A  difficulty  embarrasses :  an  obstor- 
cle  stops  us. 

(10  )  Discover^  find^  invent. 

We  discover  what  existed,  but  which  was  unknown  before ;  we  invent 
what  before  did  not  exist.  We  discover  a  thing  entire  ;  we  invent  by  newly 
applying  or  modelling  the  materials,  which  exist  separately.  To  find  or 
find  out^  is  said  of  things  which  do  not  exist  in  the  forms  in  which  a  per- 
son finds  them. 

Exercises. 

1.  Write  one  or  more  sentences  embodying  correctly 
each  of  the  aforementioned  synonyms,  in  their  precise  sense. 

2,  Fill  up  the  blanks  below  with  the  fitting  word  from 
each  class  of  synonyms,  according  to  the  numbers. 

(8.)  A  politician from  his  designs  on  finding  them  impracticable; 

he the  court,  having  been  slighted  by  it ;  he ambition,  for  study 

and  retirement,  and his  attendance  on  the  great,  as  he  becomes  old 

and  discontented. 

(7.)  1.  By  the of  walking  in  the  streets,  one  acquires  the of 

idleness.     2.  The of  early  rising  is  conducive  to  health,  and  may  in  a 

short  time  become  such  a as  to  render  it  no  less  agreeable  than  use- 
ful.    3.  Whoever  follows  the of  imitating  the  look,  tone,  or  gesture  of 

another,  is  liable  to  get  the of  doing  the  same  himself.     4.     As 

is  said  to  be  second  nature,  it  is  important  to  guard  against  all to 

which  we  are  not  willing  to  become . 

(5.)  1.  We  speak  of  a  person's at  table,  or  in  company ;  we  speak  of 

his in  the  management  of  his  private  concerns,  or  in  his  different  rela- 
tions to  his  fellow-creatures.     2.  The of  young  people  in  society,  is 

of  prime  importance.     3.  The  suitable of  a  judge  on  the  bench,  and 

of  a  minister  in  the  pulpit,  dignifies  the  office  of  each. 

(6.)  I  greatly  value  a  sound  imagination,  next  to  a judgment. 

(9.)  The  disposition  of  the  mind  often  occasions  more in  negotia- 
tions tlian  the  subjects  themselves.  The  eloquence  of  Demosthenes  was  the 
greatest which  Philip  of  Macedon  experienced  in  his  political  career- 
Ignorance  with  respect  to  the  language  is  the  greatest which  a  for- 
eigner experiences  in  the  pursuit  of  any  object  out  of  nis  own  coimfy. 


SYNONYMS.  189 

(10.)  1.  Harvey the  circulation  of  the  blood :  Torricelli the  gravity 

of  the  atmosphere ;  Newton the  principle  of  gravitation.   2.  The  geome- 
trician —  •,  by  reasoning,  the  solution  of  any  problem,  or  he a  clearer 

method  of  solving  the  same  problem ;  or  he an  instrument  to  prove 

the  result     3.  Thus  the  astronomer the  motions  of  the  heavenly 

bodies,  by  means  of  the  telescope  which  has  been . 


LESSON   LXXVI. 

SYNONYMS,     CONTINUED. 

(1.)  Distinguish^  separate. 

We  distinguish  what  we  wish  not  to  confound  with  another  thing  ;  we 
ieparaU  what  we  desire  to  remove  from  it.  Objects  are  distinguished  from 
one  another  by  their  qualities ;  they  are  separated  by  distance  of  time  or 
space. 

(2.)  Enough^  sufficient. 

Enough^  is  that  which  satisfies  one's  desires  ;  sufficient^  is  that  which  sup- 
plies one's  wants.  We  may,  thus,  frequently  have  a  sufficiency^  when  we 
have  not  enough.  The  covetous  man  never  has  enough^  though  he  has 
what  is  sufficient  for  nature. 

(3.)  'Complete^  whole^  entire^  total. 

Whole,  is  that  from  which  nothing  has  been  taken  ;  complete,  is  that  in 
which  there  is  no  deficiency ;  entire,  that  which  has  not  been  divided  into 
parts ;  total  refers  to  all  the  parts  taken  collectively.  A  thing  is  entire 
when  it  wants  none  of  its  parts ;  it  is  complete  when  it  wants  none  of  the 
ordinary  appendages  belonging  to  it.  Complete  implies  previous  progress 
in  filling  up,  or  filling  out,  to  some  end. 

A  whole  orange  has  had  nothing  taken  from  it ;  a  complete  orange  has 
grown  to  its  full  size ;  an  entire  orange  is  not  yet  cut.  It  is  possible, 
therefore,  for  a  thing  to  be  whole,  and  yet  not  entire  ;  and  to  be  both,  and 
yet  not  complete.  An  orange  cut  into  parts  is  whole  while  all  the  parts  re- 
main together,  but  it  is  not  entire;  hence  we  speak  of  a  whole  house,  an 
ontire  set,  and  a  complete  book. 

(4.)  Equivocal^  ambiguous. 

Equivocal,  means  that  which  may  be  equally  well  understood  in  two  or 
more  senses ;  ambiguous,  is  applied  to  an  expression  which  has  apparently 
two  or  more  meanings,  and  it  is  doubtful  which  of  these  is  mt-ended.     An 


190  SYNONYMS. 

equivocal  expression  has  one  sense  open,  and  designed  to  be  understood  in 
that  sense,  yet  another  sense  concealed,  and  understood  only  by  the  per- 
son using  it. 

An  equivocal  expression  is  used  with  an  intention  to  deceive  ;  an  amhig- 
turns  one,  when  properly  adopted,  with  an  intention  not  to  give  full  inform- 
ation. The  ambiguity  arises  from  a  too  general  form  of  expression,  which 
leaves  the  sense  of  the  author  indeterminate.  The  equivocation  misleads 
us  by  the  use  of  a  term  in  the  sense  which  we  do  not  suspect. 

(5.)  Answer^  reply ^  rejoinder^  response. 

All  these  terms  mclude  the  idea  of  using  words  in  return  for  other  words. 
An  answer^  is  information  satisfying  a  question  asked,  or  it  is  a  complete 
confutation  of  the  argument  of  an  opponent ;  a  reply ^  consists  of  the  words 
used  in  relation  to  an  answer,  an  assertion,  objection,  or  accusation  ;  a  re- 
joinder is  made  to  a  reply  ;  a  response  is  made  in  accordance  with  the  words 
of  another ;  it  is  an  alternate  answer.  An  answer  may  be  either  spoken  or 
written  ;  reply  and  rejoinder  are  used  in  personal  discourse  only ;  a  response 
may  be  said  or  sung. 

(6.)  Alone,  only. 

Alone  (all  one,  or  single,  by  one's  self),  means  not  accompanied  by  an- 
other object ;  only  (contracted  from  onely),  implies  that  there  is  no  othei 
object  of  the  same  kind.  An  only  child  is  one  that  has  no  brother  or  sis- 
ter ;  a  child  alane,  is  one  left  by  itself. 

(7.)  Pride,  vanity, 

A  proud  man  esteems  himself  too  highly,  for  some  real  or  imagined  su- 
periority ;  a  vain  man  greatly  desires  the  esteem  and  admiration  of  others, 
though  conscious  that  he  does  not  deserve  it.  A  man  may  be  too  proud  to 
be  vain.  Pride  is  always  used  in  a  bad  sense,  unless  preceded  by  a  favor- 
able epithet ;  as,  generous  pride,  to  denote  a  sense  of  superiority  that  is 
real.  JSaugJitmess  and  disdain  spring  from  a  comparison  of  one's  self  with 
others,  regarded  as  inferiors ;  pride^  from  a  view  of  one's  own  supposed 
perfections. 

(8.)  Proposal,  proposition. 

Proposal^  is  a  thing  offered  by  one  party  to  another,  for  rejection  or  ac- 
ceptance ;  a,  proposition^  is  something  presented  for  consideration  or  discus- 
ion. 

Exercises. 

1.  Write  sentences  containing  the  foregoing  synonyms 
in  their  true  sense. 

2.  Supply  the  blanks  with  the  appropriate  synonyms. 
(2.)  Children  and  animals  never  have  food,  nor  the  miser 


SYNONYMS.  191 

money;  it  is  requiaite  to  allovV  time  for  every  thing  that  is  to  be 

done,  if  we  wish  it  to  be  done  well. 

(3.)  A  man  may  occupy  a house  though  he  has  not  one apart- 
ment. 

(4.)  An  honest  man  w^ill  never  employ expressions ;  a  confused 

man  may  often  utter ones  without  any  design.     We  make  use  of  an 

to  deceive  ;  of  an to  keep  in  the  dark. 

(5.)  It  is  unpolite  not  to when  we  are  addressed;  arguments  are 

maintained  by  the  alternate and of  two  parties  ;  the in  the 

liturgy  are  calculated  to  keep  alive  the  attention  of  those  who  take  part. 

He  again  took  some  time  to  consider,  and  civilly ,  ''  1  do." — "  If  you 

do  agree  with  me," I,  "in  acknowledging  the  complaint,  tell  me  if 

you  will  concur,"  &c. 

(8.)  I  have  a  visit  to  her  friend  Lady  Campbell,  and  my  Anna 

seems  to  receive  the with  pleasure. 


LESSON    LXXVII. 

SYNONYMS,     CONTINUED. 

(1.)  Notice^  remark^  observe. 

To  notice  and  remark^  require  simple  attention,  in  order  to  remember ;  to 
obierve^  requires  examination,  in  order  to  judge.  To  notue^  supposes  less 
continued  attention  than  to  remark^  and  this,  less  attention  than  to  observe. 
We  remark  that  th^  wind  lies  for  a  long  time  in  a  certain  quarter  ;  we  ch- 
serve  that  whenever  it  lies  in  a  certain  quarter,  it  brings  rain  with  it.  A 
general  notices  any  thing  particular  in  the  appearance  of  his  army  ;  he  re- 
marks that  the  men  have  not  for  a  length  of  time  worn  contented  faces  ;  he 
consequently  observes  their  actions,  when  they  think  they  are  not  seen,  in 
order  to  discover  the  cause  of  their  dissatisfaction. 

(2.)  Appreciate^  esteem^  &c. 

We  appreciate  that  to  which  we  assign  its  true  value,  as,  a  man's  ser- 
vices ;  we  estimate  things  after  a  process  of  calculation,  as  the  profits  of 
business  ;  we  esteem  what  we  regard  as  an  object  of  moral  approval,  or  of 
Intrinsic  value ;  we  prvze^  or  appraise^  when  we  set  a  value  or  price  uj»on 
•.iny  article,  as  of  merchandise. 

(3.)  Authentic^  genuine. 

The  former  denotes  truthfulness  of  statement ;  the  latter,  that  a  book  or 
document  was  written  by  its  alleged  and  reputed  author. 


192  SYNONYMS. 

(4)   Tranquillity^  pecice^  calm. 

Tranquillity^  relates  to  a  position  free  from  trouble,  in  itself  considered  ; 
veace^  the  same  condition  with  respect  to  causes  that  might  interrupt  it ; 
calm^  with  respect  to  a  previous  disturbed  condition.  Feace,  is  applicable 
to  large  communities,  or  to  individuals  ;  quiet^  respects  individuals  only,  oi 
timall  communities.  Peace  implies  an  exemption  from  public  or  privatt 
broils  ;  quiet^  a  freedom  from  noise  and  interruption. 

Nations  are  said  to  have  peace,  and  not  quiet;  persons  or  families  m^y 
have  both  peace  and  quiet.  Peace,  as  expressive  of  a  state  of  mind,  is  a  per- 
manent condition  of  it ;  quiet,  a  transitory  condition.  A  good  man  enjoys 
tranquillity  in  himself;  peace^  with  others  ;  quiet^  after  a  noise,  or  interrup- 
tion ;  and  calm^  after  a  storm. 

(5.)  Weary^  fatigue, 

A  continuance  or  repetition  of  the  same  thing  wearies  us ;  \sibor  fatigwa 
us.  I  am  weary  of  having  nothing  to  do  ;  weary  of  standing  or  sitting ;  1 
am  fatigued  with  running  or  walking.  Fatigue  denotes  an  effect  from  a 
powerful  or  stimulating  cause;  ivearithess,  an  effect  from  a  continued  or  re- 
peated cause.  To  tire,  expresses  fatigue  that  wastes  one's  strength,  or,  we 
tire  of  what  is  disagreeable ;  to  jade,  is  weariness  occasioned  by  a  long 
repetition  of  the  same  act,  or  form  of  effort.  A  child,  or  feeble  person,  is 
tired  by  small  effort ;  the  body  and  mind  are  wearied  by  a  protracted  task ; 
a  powerful  horse  becomes y^^tj^ec?  on  a  long  and  continuous  journey. 

(6.)   Wisdom^  prudence. 

Wisdom,  is  the  right  use  of  knowledge — the  selection  of  the  best  means 
of  accomplishing  certain  ends ;  prudence,  is  wisdom  (or  knowledge)  applied 
to  practice.  The  wise  man  knows  what  is  past ;  the  'prudent  man  has  fore- 
sight of  the  future.  Wisdom  leads  us  to  speak  and  act  properly,  to  select 
the  most  appropriate  means  of  success ;  prudence  prompts  us  to  avoid 
danger. 

(7.)  Haste.,  hurry.,  dispatch.,  speed. 

Quickness  in  movement  and  action  is  the  common  idea  belonging  to 
these  terms.  To  hasten  and  hurry  both  mean,  to  move  forward  with 
quickness  to  gain  some  object ;  but  the  former  implies  design  and  good 
order,  the  latter  supposes  confusion,  perturbation,  and  irregularity.  Speed, 
denotes  not  only  quick,  but  forward,  progressive  movement. 

To  expedite,  expresses  a  process,  a  bringing  forward  towards  an  end ;  to 
dispatch,  implies  a  putting  an  end  to.  We  do  eve  ry  thing  in  our  power  to 
expedite  M  business ;  we  dispatch  a  great  deal  of  business  within  a  given 
time.  Expedition  is  required  in  one  who  executes ;  dispatch,  in  one  who 
determines  and  directs. 

The  epithet  hasty  implies  an  over-quickness  of  speech,  which  outstrips 
consideration  ;  hurried  implies  a  disorderly  motion,  springing  from  a  dis- 
tempered state  of  mind. 


(B.)  To  help^  to  assist. 

Help  is  wanted  in  labor,  danger,  difficulties,  &c. ;  assistance  is  rendered 
in  pursuing  some  study,  or  performing  some  work.  A  man  in  a  state  of 
f?uffeiing  may  be  helped  ;  in  doing  something,  may  be  assisted. 

(9.)   To  have.,  to  possess. 

W  liat  we  have  does  not  always  belong  to  us  ;  wbat  we  possess  is  pecu- 
liarly our  own.  We  are  masters  of  what  we  possess^  but  not  always  of 
what  w«  have. 

Exercises. 

1.  Write  sentences  containing  the  foregoing  synonyms 
rightly  used. 

2.  Fill  the  blanks  with  the  appropriate  synonyms. 

(1.) — 1.  A  traveller the  most  striking  objects  which  he  sees ;  a  gen- 
eral   all  the  motions  of  his  enemy.      2.  People  who  have  no  curiosity, 

are  sometimes  attracted  to the  stars  or  planets,  when  they  are  partic- 
ularly bright ;  those  who  look  frequently  will that  the  same  star  does 

not  rise  exactly  in  the  same  place  for  two  successive  nights  ;  but  the  as- 
tronomer goes  further,  and all  the  motions  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  in 

order  to  discover  the  scheme  of  the  universe. 

(6.) — 1.  The  man  foreseeth  the  evil,  and  hideth  himself.     2.  Two 

things  speak  much  the of  a  nation  :  good  laws,  and  a manage- 
ment of  them. 

(7.) — 1.  The  coachman  was  ordered  to  drive  with  the  utmost to  Hyde 

Park  Corner.     2.  Homer,  to  preserve  the  unity  of  action,  into  the 

midst  of  things. 

8.  "  Now  'tis  naught 

But  restless through  the  busy  air, 

Beat  by  unnumber'd  wings."  Thomson, 

(8.) — 1.  The  question  of  the of  Ossian's  poems  has  been  long  set  at 

rest.  2.  The  most account  of  this  transaction  may  be  found  in  *'  Gib- 
bon's Decline  and  Fall."  3.  Niebuhr  thought  that  several  of  the  books 
said  to  have  been  written  by  Julius  Cassar  are  not . 

(8.) — 1.  The  author  was  greatly in  his  work  by  a  friend,  who  revised 

his  manuscript,  &c.     2.  Had  it  not  been  for  a  friend  who him  out  of 

his  difficulties,  he  must  have  been  imprisoned.  3.  In  the  middle  of  the 
night  I  was  awakened  by  loud  .cries  of  " ,"  " I" 

(D.) — 1.  1 a  small  parcel  at  home  belonging  to  you,  which  is  at  your 

disposal.     2.  He  is  an  excellent  man,  and every  desirable  quality. 

8.  As  to  the  books  which  were  brought  yesterday,  I them  in  my  li- 
brary, and  you  shall  — —  them  before  you  go  home. 


194  SYNONYMS. 


LESSON  LXXVIII. 

ADDITIONAL      SYNONYMS. 

(1.)  To  expect^  to  hope. 

We  ex'pect  an  event,  whether  agreeable  or  otherwise,  which  we  Uinfc 
will  probably  take  place  ;  we  ho^e  for  an  agreeable  event,  which  we  greatly 
desire  to  occur.  We  may  ex'pect^  but  not  Tio'pe  for,  an  event  which  we 
kuow  will  give  us  pain. 

(2.)   To  hury^  to  inter. 

To  hury^  is  to  conceal  under  the  ground ;  to  inter ^  is  to  place  in  the 
ground  with  solemn  ceremonies. 

(3.)  Vice  and  sin. 

Whatever  violates  the  laws  of  morality  is  a  vice;  whatever  violates  tho 
laws  of  God  is  a  sin.  The  same  act  may  be  at  once  a  vice  and  a  sin — a  vice 
as  being  injurious  to  society,  and  a  sin  as  being  prohibited  by  God. 

(4.)  Temper^  humor .,  mood. 

Temper  belongs  to  the  permanent  character  of  a  man,  and  exercises  an 
influence  over  his  general  conduct ;  humor  is  a  state  of  mind  produced  by 
particular  circumstances,  and  is  transitory.  We  speak  of  the  humor  of  the 
moment ;  of  tlie  temper  of  youth  or  old  age.  Temper  modifies  the  actions 
and  opinion?^,  as  well  as  the  feelings. 

We  may  be  in  a  humor  for  writing,  or  reading,  or  talking ;  for  what  is 
gay,  or  for  what  is  serious.  Humor  and  mood  agree  in  denoting  a  particu- 
lar and  temporary  state  of  feeling,  the  former  attributable  to  the  physical 
state  of  the  body,  the  latter  to  the  moral  condition  of  the  mind. 

(5.)  Attitude.,  posture. 

A  posture  denotes  the  visible  position  of  the  body,  as  a  horizontal,  erect, 
fcioeping  posture ;  an  attitude  is  an  expression  of  internal  feeling  by  a  cor- 
responding position  of  the  body.  We  speak  of  an  attitude  of  despair,  or  of 
melancholy.  An  attitude  is  a  posture  with  expression.  It  is  employed  by 
painters  and  sculptors.  Attitude  and  posPure  are  figuratively  applied  to 
other  objects  besides  the  body. 

(6.)  Duty  and  obligation. 

Duty  consists  of  w^hat  is  right  or  due  from  one  being  to  another.  All 
duty  depends  upon  moral  oi^igation^  which  subsists  between  man  and  man, 


SYNONYMS.  195 

or  between  man  and  his  Maker.  We  have  duties  to  perform  as  hugbands 
and  wives,  parents  and  children,  &c. ;  the  debtor  is  under  an  obligation  to 
discharge  a  debt,  and  he  who  has  promised  is  under  an  obligation  to  fulfil 
liis  promise.  An  obligation  is  what  we  bind  ourselves  to  do,  independent 
ly  of  our  natural  duties. 

(7.)   Occasion,  opportunity. 

Occasion  means  what  falls  in  our  way ;  opportunity/,  that  which  happens 
fit  for  our  purpose.  They  are  applied  to  the  events  of  life.  Opportunities 
are  particular  occasions.  An  occasion  presents  itself;  an  opportunity  is  de- 
sired and  sought,  embraced  or  improved.  We  do  things  as  the  occasion 
requires,  or  as  the  opportunity  offers. 

(8.)  K  picture,  2i  painting. 

The  former  is  a  representation  of  objects ;  the  latter  is  a  representation 
by  means  of  color.  Every  painting  is  a  picture,  because  it  represents 
something ;  but  every  picture  is  not  a  painting,  because  every  picture  is 
not  painted.  Figuratively  speaking,  the  poet  paints  in  glowing  colors; 
the  historian  draws  a  lively  picture. 

(9.)  Bravery,  courage. 

The  former  is  constitutional ;  the  latter  is  acquired  by  reflection ;  hence 
there  is  no  merit  in  being  brave,  but  much  in  being  courageous.  Brave 
men  are  naturally  careless  of  danger ;  the  courageous  man  is  aware  of  dan- 
ger, and  yet  faces  it  calmly. 

(10.)  To  exert,  to  exercise. 

To  exert,  is  to  put  forth ;  to  exercise,  is  to  put  forth  repeatedly.  To  exert 
authority,  is  to  employ  it  in  single  instances ;  to  exercise  authority,  implies 
continuance  and  repetition  of  the  act.  We  exert  the  voice  in  calling  to  one 
at  a  distance  ;  we  exercise  it  in  learning  to  sing  or  to  practise  oratory. 

(11.)  To  grow,  to  become. 

To  become,  is  to  be  one  thing  from  having  been  another ;  to  grow,  is  to 
be  approaching  towards  another  state.    To  grow,  is  to  become  by  degrees. 

Exercises. 

1.  Write  a  sentence  embracing  each  of  the  foregoing 
synonyms,  and  in  a  proper  sense. 

2.  Fill  the  blanks  below  with  the  right  synonyms. 

(1.) — 1.  Such  was  the  violence  of  the  storm  that  none  of  the  passengeii* 

the  vessel  could  outlive  the  gale.     2.  The  father  had that  his  son 

would  rise  to  eminence  in  his  profession. 

(2.)— 1.  William  I.  caused  the  body  of  Harold  to  be on  the  sea-shorii. 

2.  The  house  fell  in,  and  the  \Torkmen  were in  the  ruins. 


196  SYNONYMS. 

(3.) — Virtue  and chiefly  imply  the  relation  of  our  actions  to  men  in 

this  world ; and  holiness  rather  imply  theii  relation  to  God  in  the 

other  world. 

(4.) — 1.  My  friend  is  a  man  of  such  excellent ,  that  I  do  not  think  I 

over  saw  him  in  an  ill  ~ — .     2.  My  cousin  is  much  altered ;  she  has  no 

onger  the  same  low for  which  she  was  so  remarkable,  but  frequently 

ftiUs  into  fits  of which  make  ker  a  disagreeable  companion.     3.  He 

was  a  man  of  very  reserved ,  but  when  in  the could  unbend  and 

be  communicative.    4.  There  is  no  calculating  on  the of  a  man ;  it 

depends  upon  his whether  he  progresses  well  or  ill. 

(5.) — 1.  Armies  assume  a  menacing .    2.  In  a  critical of  affairs 

great  skill  is  required  on  the  part  of  government. 

(6.)— 1.  I  feel  myself  under  very  great to  my  instructor.    2.  The  offi- 

o8s  of  a  parent  may  be  discharged  from  a  sense  of  their . 

(7.) — 1.  It  is  hard  to  imagine  one's  self  in  a  scene  of  greater  horror  than 

on  that .    2.  At  the  Louvre  I  had  the of  seeing  the  king.    8.  Have 

you  heard  the of  this  custom  ?    4.  Neglect  no  of  doing  good. 

5.  On  particular a  commander  must  be  severe ;  but  a  humane  one  will 

embrace  every  proper to  show  his  lenity  to  offenders. 

(8.) — 1.  You  cannot  easily to  yourself  any  thing  more  unpleasant 

than  my  riituation.  2.  The  prize  for  the  greatest  improvement  in  drawing 
was  a  beautiful  water-color ,  by  a  first-rate  artist. 

(9.) — 1.  King  Alfred  displayed  great in  resisting  the  Danes.    2.  It 

requires  quite  as  much  in  a  minister  to  guide  the  state  in  safety 

through  all  her  political  storms,  as  in  a  general  to  insure  victory  to  his 
country  amidst  surrounding  dangers. 

(10.) — 1.  This  faculty  of  mind,  when  it  is immediately  about  things, 

is  called  judgment.     2.  When  the  will  has an  act  of  command  upon 

any  faculty,  it  has  done  all  that  man  can  do  for  the  actual or  employ- 
ment of  such  faculty. 

(11.) — 1.  A  dying  man weaker  every  hour;  a  patient  who  has  suffered 

much  pain  has  very  weak.    2.  As  we  older,  it  is  our  duty  to 

more  virtuous.    3.  Authors,  like  coins, dear  as  they old. 

4.  The  Lord  breathed  into  his  nostrils  the  breath  of  life,  and  man a 

living  soul. 


LESSON  LXXIX. 

SYNONYMS,     CONTINUED. 

(1.)   To  hear^  to  listen. 

Like  "  to  see"  and  '*to  look,"  these  are  synonyms  of  degree.  We  ofteri 
hear  involuntarily ;  we  listen  with  intention.  We  may  hear  persons  talk- 
ing without  listening  to  what  they  say. 


SYNONYMS.  197 

(2.)  To  lament^  to  deplore. 

We  lament  with  loud  exclamations  and  cries ;  we  deplore  with  deep  feel 
ing  and  with  tears.  The  latter  word  expresses  more  intense  gric  f  than  thi 
tormor.  A  field  of  battle  or  a  city  overthrown  by  an  earthquake  is  a  spec 
tacle  truly  deplorable;  it  is  lamentable  to  see  beggars  putting  on  all  the  dis- 
o^niies  of  wretchedness,  in  order  to  obtain  what  they  might  earn  by  honest 
industry. 

(3.)  To  overcome^  to  conquer^  &c. 

By  overcoming^  we  prove  that  we  are  superior  to  our  rival  or  enemy  ;  bj 
o.mquering  we  gain  possession.  An  enemy  is  conquered ;  an  antagonist  is 
overcome.  Those  who  are  taken  prisoners  are  conquered;  those  who  yield 
in  the  contest  are  overcome.  Alexander  conquered  the  Persians,  after  hav- 
ing overcome  Darius  in  three  great  battles.  In  his  march  across  the  Alps, 
Hannibal  overcame  every  difficulty. 

We  conquer  an  enemy  by  whatever  means  we  gain  the  mastery  over  him ; 
we  vanquish  him,  when  by  force  we  make  him  yield ;  we  subdue  him  by 
whatever  means  we  check  in  him  the  spirit  of  resistance.  Persons  or 
things  are  conquered  or  subdued ;  persons  only  are  vanquished.  One  con- 
quers by  ordinary  means  and  efforts ;  one  subdues  by  extraordinary.  Prej- 
udices and  prepossessions  are  overcome  ;  obstacles  and  difficulties  are  sur- 
mounted. 

(4.)  To  perceive.,  to  discern.,  to  distinguish. 

We  perceive  things  by  themselves  and  in  reference  to  objects  of  the 
same  sort ;  we  discern  them  amidst  many  others,  separating  them  by  the 
eye  and  considering  them  apart  from  the  rest.  We  perceive  that  which  is 
obvious ;  we  discern  that  which  is  remote,  or  which  requires  close  atten- 
tion to  get  a  clear  idea  of  it. 

To  discern  signifies  to  see  only  one  thing  or  class  of  things  ;  to  distin- 
guish., to  see  two  or  more  in  quick  succession,  and  not  to  confound  them. 
Experienced  persons  may  discern  the  signs  of  the  times ;  it  is  just  to  dis- 
tinguish between  an  action  done  from  inadvertence,  and  that  which  is  dono 
from  design. 

(5.)  To  receive^  to  accept. 

That  is  received  which  simply  comes  tc  hand ;  that  is  accepted  which  wo 
express  our  willingness  to  take  on  ourselves.  Thus,  we  receive  a  letter 
when  it  comes  to  hand ;  we  receive  news  when  it  reaches  us;  we  accept  a 
present  which  is  offered  us  ;  we  accept  an  invitation  to  dine,  &c. 

(6.)  ^o  forgive^  to  pardon. 

Small  offences  are  forgiven ;  great  offences  are  pardoned.  We  use  the 
former  word  on  familiar  occasions;  the  latter  in  cases  of  importance. 
Equals  in  life  exercise  forgiveness ;  superiors  grant  pardon  to  inferiors. 


t9S  SYNONYMS. 

The  expression  in  the  Lord's  prayer,  Forgi/ve^  &c.,  accords  with  the  en- 
dearing title  Our  Father^  which  we  use  in  the  beginning. 

(7.)  Ho  furnish^  to  supply, 

I  furnish  that  another  may  use  ;  I  supply  that  another  may  not  want. 
What  is  wanting  to  make  a  thing  complete  must  be  supplied  ;  what  is  re- 
quired for  occasional  use  {^furnished.  Our  wants  are  supplied  ;  our  com- 
forts are  furnished.  The  poor  are  supplied  with  blankets  and  fuel  during 
the  wintei  ;  the  rich  man's  table  is  furnished  with  delicacies.  What  is 
furnished  we  keep  by  us  for  use  ;  wliat  is  supplied,  we  use  immediately. 
Hen(»,e  a  house  m  furnished  with  tables  and  chairs;  a  larder  is  supplied 
with  meats  and  vegetables. 

(8.)    Veracity^  truth. 

The  former  regards  persons  ;  the  latter,  things.  We  speak  of  the  trutn 
of  history,  but  of  the  veracity  of  the  historian.  If  the  thing  said  be  trtte^ 
the  person  who  said  it  was  veracious. 

(9.)  To  caution^  to  warn. 

We  are  cautioned  against  acting  injudiciously ;  we  are  warned  of  what 
may  act  injuriously  upon  ourselves.  We  warn  a  man  of  approaching 
danger ;  we  caution  him  against  running  into  it. 

(10.)  To  defend^  to  protect. 

To  defend  is  to  ward  off ;  to  protect  is  to  cover  over.  We  defend  thoso 
who  are  attacked ;  we  protect  those  who  are  liable  to  be  attacked.  Swords 
and  spears,  a  garrison  and  cannon,  are  arms  of  defence;  helmets  and 
shields,  fortification  and  natural  position,  ate  means  oi  protection.  Houses 
protect  us  from  the  inclemency  of  the  weather;  brave  soldiers  defend 
their  country. 

Exercises. 

1.  Write  sentences  embodying  each  of  the  foregoing 
synonyms  correctly  used. 

2.  Write  the  following  sentences,  filling  the  blanks  with 
appropriate  synonyms : 

(1.) — If  you a  conversation,  you  may many  improving  remarks. 

On  entering  the  harbor,  we a  loud  explosion.     We attentively, 

thinking  it  might  be  repeated,  but  we nothing  more.    There  is  an  old 

proverb  :  " never any  good  of  themselves." 

(2.) — 1.  The  condition  of  a  dying  man  suffering  under  the  agonies  of  an 

awakened  conscience,  is ;  the  situation  of  the  relation  or  friend  who 

witnesses  the  agony,  without  being  able  to  afford  consolation  to  the  suf- 


SYNONYMS.  199 

terer,  is  truly .    2.  He  who grieves  aloud ;  he  who grieves 

silently.     3.  We an  honorable,  we a  disgraceful  misfortune. 

(3.) — 1.  Alexander  wept  at  the  idea  that  there  were  no  more  worlds  to 

.     He  himself  was  at  last  by  the  deadliest  of  foes ;  namely, 

drunkenness.     2.  "The  patient  mind,  by  yielding, ."    3.  William  the 

Fir^t England  by his  rival  Harold :  after  which  he  completely 

the  English.    4.  Whoever  aims  at  Christian  perfection  must  strive 

with  God's  assistance  to avarice  and  pride ;  to wrath,  anger,  and 

lust ;  to temptations,  and  to  the  trials  and  impediments  whicii 

obstruct  his  course. 

(4.) — 1.  The  conduct  of  people  is  sometimes  so  veiled  by  art,  that  it  is 

not  easy  to their  object ;  it  is  necessary  to between  practice  and 

profession.     2.  I trees  or  houses  at  a  distance ;  I a  steeple  among 

houses,  and  a  river  in  the  landscape.  3.  We the  truth  of  a  proposi- 
tion which,  perhaps,  did  not  at  first  strike  us  obviously.     4.  A  sagacious 

mind  can truth,  though  it  be  mixed  up  with  falsehood  or  hypocrisy. 

6.  Long  before  the  vessel  reached  the  shore,  I  could the  tall  elms 

which  skirt  our  home-field.     6.  I  soon that  the  chief's  intentions  were 

hostile.  7.  The  lawless  soldiers  did  not  trouble  themselves  to be- 
tween a  subject  and  a  rebel. 

(5.) — 1.  No  further  intelligence  had  been up  to  the  middle  of  last 

month.    2.  Certain  conditions  were  ofiered  by  Csesar  and by  Cassi- 

velaunus.  3.  The  minister,  rising,  said  that  he with  pride  and  satis- 
faction their  token  of  friendship. 

(7.) — 1.  The  demand  for  cotton  goods  was  so  great  that  the  manufactur- 
ers could  not the  dealers  fast  enough.     2.  The  ships  were  well  fitted 

out,  being  with  all  the  necessary  nautical  instruments,  and  amply 

with  provisions.     3.  The  shelves  of  his  library  are  with  rare 

books.     4.  What  he  wanted  in  ability  was by  unremitting  assiduity. 

5.  Youth  is  the  season  for the  mind  with  sound  principles. 

(8.) — As  his has  never  been  called  in  question,  we  have  no  reason  to 

doubt  the of  his  assertion. 

(9.) — A  poor  woman  besought  the  magistrate  to her  against  the  vio- 
lence of  her  husband.     He  was  well from  the  weather  by  a  thick 

great-coat. 

[The  definitions  and  illustrations  of  Synonyms  in  this  and  foregoing  Lessons  have 
been  derived  chiefly  from  Crabb's  and  Grraham's  works  on  the  subject.  The  latter  is 
the  more  convenient  Manual  for  use  in  Schools.  The  Synonyms  are  briefly  but  ex- 
ceedingly well  presented  in  Webster's  University  Dictionary,  8vo.,  published  by  Lip- 
pincott  &  Co.  The  Pictorial  Unabridged  Dictionary  of  Webster,  just  published,  is 
more  complete  in  its  exposition  of  synonymous  words,  and  is  worthy  of  diligent 
■*tudy  and  use.] 


200  PBECISION   OF   EXPRESSION. 

LESSON    LXXX. 

PKECISION    OP   EXPRESSION. 

Coleridge,  in  the  Preface  to  his  valuable  "  Aids  to  Re- 
flection," well  observes :  "  Reflect  on  your  own  thoughts, 
actions,  circumstances,  and — which  will  be  of  especial  aid 
to  you  in  forming  a  habit  of  reflection — accustom  yourself 
to  reflect  on  the  words  you  use,  hear,  or  read,  their  birth, 
derivation,  and  history.  For  if  words  are  not  things,  they 
are  living  powers,  by  which  the  things  of  most  importance 
to  mankind  are  actuated,  combined,  and  humanized." 

The  following  sentence  shows  finely  the  advantage  of  giving 
close  attention  to  the  nicer  shades  of  signification  belonging  to 
words  that  to  most  persons  may  seem  to  be  perfectly  synonymous : 
"The  diligent  student  may  acquire  knowledge,  obtain  rewards, 
win  prizes,  gain  celebrity,  and  get  high  honors,  though  he  earn 
no  money." 

Some  words,  apparently  of  the  same  meaning,  are  yet  so  differ- 
ent in  their  application,  that  they  cannot,  without  a  violation  of 
precision,  be  interchanged :  thus,  we  speak  of  the  truth  of  a  nar- 
rative, the  veracity  of  the  narrator,  and  the  authenticity  of  a 
document. 

We  abstain  from  an  indulgence,  forbear  to  enforce  a  right,  refrain  from 
committing  an  injury,  and  we  withstand  a  temptation. 

We  consent  to  a  proposal,  comply  with  a  desire,  accede  to  a  request,  and 
acquiesce  in  a  decision. 

We  are  absorbed  in  grief,  and  engrossed  in  business. 

We  shun  what  we  dislike,  avoid  what  is  wrong,  and  elude  what  we  fear. 

We  grant  permission,  bestow  charity,  present  compliments,  offer  an 
apology,  afford  protection,  confer  a  favor,  concede  a  right,  and  accord  con- 
sideration. 

Rule  Y. — JBe  carefid  not  to  employ  as  the  same  in 
meaning  certain  words  that  greatly  resemble  each  other  in 
form.  This  rule  has  been  given  also  under  the  head  ol 
"  Propriety  of  Expression." 


CLEARNESS.  201 

Examples. — Critic,  critique;  observance,  observation;  conscience,  con- 
sciousness; endurance,  duration;  successively,  successfully;  contagious, 
contiguous ;  eminent,  imminent ;  ingenious,  ingenuous ;  contemptuous, 
contemptible;  continued,  continuous,  &c. 

Rule  VI. —  Words  derived  from  the  ancient  languages 
should  not  be  used  in  the  sense  peculiar  to  such  language, 
and  not  commonly  understood  hy  persons  acquainted  only 
foith  the  English  language,  thus  : 

"  I  have  considered  the  subject  in  its  integrity,"  would  be  understood 
to  mean,  "  in  its  honesty,  uprightness,"  these  being  its  usual  significations ; 
whereas,  in  this  sentence,  it  was  designed  to  mean,  "  in  its  entirety  or  en- 
tireness,^^  from  integer  signifying  whole,  that  is,  "I  have  considered  the 
whole  subject." 


LESSON  LXXXI. 

CLEARNESS   IN   THE   STRUCTURE   OF   SENTENCES. 

This  essential  property  is  opposed  to  the  expression  of 
our  ideas  in  vague,  obscure,  inaccurate,  or  ambiguous 
phraseology ;  and  it  demands  the  uniform  use  of  such 
words,  phrases,  and  idiomatic  constructions  as  shall  make 
our  thoughts  accurately  and  easily  comprehended.  Sen- 
tences should  be  so  constructed  that  their  meaning  cannot 
easily  be  misunderstood,  or  understood  with  difficulty,  pro- 
vided the  nature  of  the  subject  be  not  so  abstruse  or  pro- 
found as  to  involve  some  difficulty  in  understanding  what 
is  said,  however  perspicuously  expressed.  Let  sentences 
be  so  composed  that  only  one  meaning,  and  that  the  one 
intended,  shall  be  conveyed  to  every  attentive  reader. 
Care  is  to  be  taken  (says  Quintilian),  not  that  the  hearer 
may  understand  if  he  will,  but  that  he  m^ust  understand, 
whether  he  will  or  not. 

To  write  with  clearness,  an  accurate  knowledge  of  our  language, 
ftnd  a  ready  practical  command  of  it,  is  necessary.    Besides  this,  a 


202  CLEARNESS. 

logical  precision  of  thought  is  likewise  requisite,  for  according  to 
Horace,  "To  think  well,  is  the  principle  and  source  of  correct 
writing."  ("  Scribendi  recte  sapere  est  et  principium  et  fon8,") 
We -must  perfectly  know  our  own  meaning,  or  we  cannot  convey 
it  to  others. 

Rule  I. — Avoid  an  ambiguous  collocation  of  the  elements 
of  sentences^  either  in  the  position  of  adverbs^  or  of  the  rela 
Cive  pronouns  who,  which,  whose,  &c.,  or  in  the  repetition 
of  the  personal  pronouns  they,  them,  their,  and  similar 
particles  expressing  the  connection  of  the  parts  of  speech 
with  one  another. 

The  general  rule  to  guide  in  this  matter,  is  to  place  these  parts 
of  speech  as  near  as  possible  to  the  words  to  which  they  relate, 
and  in  such  positions  as  to  make  their  mutual  relation  quite  obvi- 
ous. All  the  qualifying  expressions  relating  to  the  subject,  the 
verb,  and  its  object,  both  in  principal  and  in  subordinate  sentences, 
should  be  placed  as  near  as  possible  to  the  qualified  word ;  for  the 
relations  of  words  are  understood  only  by  their  proper  position  or 
arrangement. 

The  same  rule  includes  particular  clauses,  in  which  some  cir- 
cumstance is  expressed.  It  is  important,  also,  to  avoid  crowding 
many  circumstances  together,  instead  of  distributing  them  to  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  sentence,  and  to  join  them  to  the  princii)al 
words  on  which  they  depend. 

It  impairs  clearness  to  place  a  circumstance-clause  between 
two  principal  members  of  a  period ;  as  it  embarrasses  the  mind  in 
determining  to  which  of  these  it  is  designed  to  be  referred.  Such 
a  clause  should  eitlier  be  placed  between  the  parts  of  that  member 
of  tfie  sentence  to  which  it  belongs,  or  it  should  occupy  a  position 
in  which  it  will  stand  obviously  related  to  its  proper  member. 

Rule  II. — Avoid  using  the  same  word  in  different  senses^ 

or  different  words  in  the  same  sense,  in  the  same  paragraph 

or  sentence. 

Thus,  in  the  quotation,  "  These  men  may  give  more^  but  cannot  give 
more  evident^  signs  of  thought  than  their  fellow-creatures."  Here  the  word 
iryyre  is  first  an  adjective,  the  comparative  of  many  ;  next  it  is  an  adverb, 
an<l  the  sign  of  the  comparative  degree.    To  render  the  sentence  perspicu- 


EXERCISES   ON   CLEARNESS.  SOf^ 

ous  it  should  be,  "May  give  more  numerous^  but,"  &c. ;  or,  "May  givp 
iiuore^  but  cannot  give  clearer  signs,"  &c. 

When  the  same  pronoun  is  used  twice  or  oftener  in  relation  to 
different  things,  perspicuity  is  impaired  or  destroyed.  It  is  at- 
tended with  the  same  disadvantage  as  the  employment  of  any 
other  word  in  different  senses,  in  the  same  connection. 

Example  :  "  One  may  have  an  air  which  proceeds  from  a  knowledge  of 
the  matter  before  him,  which  may  naturally  produce  some  motions  of  his 
head  and  body,  which  might  become  the  bench  better  than  the  bar." 
Here  the  pronoun  is  used  in  three  senses,  successively  referring  to  an  air^ 
to  hiowledge^  and  to  motion  of  tlu  head  and  hody. 

Exercises. 

1.  So  alter  the  following  sentences  as  to  render  them 
more  perspicuous,  and  free  from  ambiguity. 

The  Romans  understood  liberty,  at  least,  as  well  as  we. 

Theism  can  only  be  opposed  to  polytheism  or  atheism. 

By  the  pleasures  of  the  imagination  I  mean  only  such  pleasures  as  arise 
originally  from  sight. 

There  is  not,  perhaps,  any  real  beauty  or  deformity  more  in  one  piece  of 
matter  than  another. 

Are  these  designs  which  any  man,  who  is  born  a  Briton,  in  any  circum- 
stances, in  any  situation,  ought  to  be  ashamed  or  afraid  to  avow  ? 

A  great  stone  that  I  found,  after  a  long  search,  by  the  sea-shore,  answered 
the  purpose  of  an  anchor. 

What  I  had  the  opportunity  of  mentioning  to  my  friend,  some  time  ago, 
m  conversation,  was  not  a  new  thought. 

The  minister  of  state  who  grows  less  by  his  elevation,  like  a  little  statue 
placed  on  a  mighty  pedestal,  will  always  have  his  jealousy  strong  about 
him.  For  the  English  are  naturally  fanciful,  and  very  often  disposed,  by 
that  gloominess  and  melancholy  of  temper  which  are  so  frequent  in  our 
nation,  to  many  wild  notions  and  extravagances,  to  which  others  are  not 
so  liable. 

For  as  no  mortal  author,  in  the  ordinary  fate  and  vicissitude  of  things, 
knows  to  what  use  his  works  may,  some  time  or  other,  be  applied,  &c. 

The  emperor  was  so  intent  on  the  establishment  of  his  absolute  power 
in  Hungary,  that  he  exposed  the  empire  doubly  to  desolation  and  ruin  for 
the  sake  of  it. 

There  is  among  the  people  of  all  countries,  and  of  all  religions,  a  beliel 
of  immortality,  arising  from  the  natural  desire  of  living,  and  strengthened 
by  tradition,  which  has  certainly  some  influence  upon  practice. 

And,  indeed,  in  some  cases  we  derive  as  much  or  more  pleasure  from 
that  source  than  from  the  thing  itself. 


204  EXERCISES   ON   CLEARNESS. 

Above  rolled  the  planets,  each,  by  its  own  liquid  orbit  of  light,  distin- 
guished from  the  inferior  or  more  distant  stars. 

Thales  was  not  only  famous  for  his  knowledge  of  nature,  but  for  hia 
moral  wisdom. 

Nor  is  the  reason  dilflcult  to  be  discerned  which  has  led  to  the  estab- 
lishment of  this  moral  law. 

There  are  so  many  advantages  of  speaking  one's  own  language  well,  and 
being  master  of  it,  that,  let  a  man's  calling  be  what  it  will,  it  cannot  but 
be  worth  our  taking  some  pains  in  it. 

They  were  persons  of  such  moderate  intellects  even  before  they  were  im- 
paired by  their  passions. 

The  sharks,  who  prey  upon  the  inadvertency  of  young  heirs,  are  more 
pardonable  than  those  who  trespass  upon  the  good  opinion  of  those  who 
treat  with  them  upon  the  footing  of  choice  and  respect. 

It  contained  (says  Swift)  a  warrant  for  conducting  me  and  my  retinue  to 
Traldergdub  or  Trildrogdrib,  for  it  is  pronounced  both  ways,  as  near  as  I 
can  remember,  by  a  party  of  ten  horse. 

I  had  several  men  who  died  in  my  ship  of  calentures.  I  perceived  it  had 
been  scoured,  with  half  an  eye. 

I  have  hopes  that  when  Will  confronts  him,  and  all  the  ladies  in  whose 
behalf  he  engages  him,  cast  kind  looks  and  wishes  of  success  at  their  cham- 
pion, he  will  have  some  shame. 

He  advanced  against  the  fierce  ancient,  imitating  his  address,  his  pace, 
and  career,  as  well  as  the  vigor  of  his  horse,  and  his  own  skill  would  allow. 

^his  kind  of  wit  was  very  much  in  vogue  among  our  countrymen  about 
an  age  or  two  ago ;  who  did  not  practise  it  for  any  oblique  reason,  but 
purely  for  the  sake  of  being  witty. 

It  is  folly  to  pretend  to  arm  ourselves  against  the  accidents  of  life,  by 
heaping  up  treasures,  which  noth'ng  can  protect  us  against  but  the  good 
providence  of  God. 

Men  look  with  an  evil  eye  upon  the  good  that  is  in  others,  and  think  that 
their  reputation  obscures  them,  and  their  commendable  qualities  stand  in 
their  light;  and,  therefore,  they  do  what  they  can  to  cast  a  cloud  over 
them,  that  the  bright  shining  of  their  virtues  may  not  obscure  them. 

2.  The  following  additional  examples  are  faulty  only  in 
the  collocation  of  certain  words  or  phrases.  They  are  taken 
(with  some  modifications)  from  Hurd's  "  Grammatical  Cor- 
rector," and  Northend's  "  Teacher's  Assistant." 

He  bought  a  pair  of  thick  men^s  boots  ;  a  pair  of  black  ladies'  gloves ; 
and  a  pair  of  red  children's  shoes. 

I  have  purchased  a  new  set  of  blinds,  and  a  new  pair  of  shears. 

On  going  out  this  morning,  I  met  an  old  venerable  man,  and  a  young 
tall  man,  and  a  young  beautiful  lady. 

The  place  contains  an  excellent  well  of  water,  and  a  fine  orchard  of  frnlt. 


EXERCISES    ON    CLEARNESS.  20t> 

Steamboat  Notice. — "  Gentlemen  are  not  requested  to  enter  the  Ladies' 
Cabin  without  permission." 

Advertisement. — "  Wanted  immediately,  a  man  to  take  care  of  a  pair  of 
horses  of  temperate  and  industrious  habits." 

Caption  to  a  poem. — "  The  following  lines  were  written  by  one  who,  for 
more  than  ten  years,  has  been  confined  in  the  Penitentiary  for  his  own  di- 
version." 

Report  of  a  School  Committee. — "  The  committee  would  further  suggest 
some  cliange  in  the  internal  arrangement  of  the  building,  as  a  large  num- 
ber of  seats  have  long  been  occupied  by  the  scholars  that  have  no  backs." 

"  The  Senate  of  Rome  ordered  that  no  part  of  it  (Carthage)  should  be 
rebuilt ;  it  was  demolished  to  the  ground,  so  that  travellers  are  unable  to 
say  where  Carthage  stood  at  this  day." 

"Thus  ended  the  war  with  Antiochus,  twelve  years  after  the  second  Pu- 
nic war,  and  two  years  after  it  had  begun." 

"  Upon  the  death  of  Claudius,  the  young  Emperor  Nero  pronounced  his 
funeral  oration,  and  he  was  canonized  among  the  gods,  who  scarcely  de- 
served the  name  of  a  man." 

"  Galerius  abated  much  of  his  severities  against  the  Christians  on  his 
death-bed,  and  revoked  those  edicts  which  he  had  formerly  published, 
tending  to  their  persecution  a  little  before  his  death." 

"  Wanted. — A  young  man  to  take  charge  of  a  pair  of  horses  of  a  religious 
turn  of  mind." 

A  man  writes  :  "  We  have  two  school -rooms  sufficiently  large  to  accom- 
modate four  hundred  pupils  three  stories  high." 


LESSON  LXXXII. 

CLEARNESS   IN   THE   STRUCTURE    OF   SENTENCES. 

Rule  III. — Let  not  sentences  be  made  too  long  /  nor  in 
terrupted  by  long  parentheses ;  nor  obscured  by  intricate 
phraseology^  or  unnecessary  iiiversions  and  involutions 
of  the  component  clauses;  nor  darkened  by  an  injudicious 
use  of  technical  words  and  phrases. 

There  is  a  kind  of  sentence  which,  however  long,  may  b© 
clear, — that  which  has  its  principal  members  similar  in  struc- 
ture, and  which  would  form  so  many  distinct  sentences  were  they 
not  united  by  their  reference  to  some  common  clause  at  the  be- 


206  CLEARNESS. 

ginning  or  end.  Bat,  in  other  cases,  sentences  of  great  le?)gth 
are  not  easily  comprehended,  and  should  not,  therefore,  be  em- 
ployed. 

Instead  of  using  a  long  parenthesis,  the  thought  it  conveys 
should  take  the  form  of  a  separate  sentence.  But  this  particular 
will  be  naturally  considered  in  a  subsequent  lesson,  under  the 
head  of  Unity. 

An  example  will  now  be  given  of  a  long  sentence  which  may 
be  greatly  improved,  in  clearness  and  beauty,  by  subdivision  into 
two  or  three  separate  sentences.     The  original  form  is  this: 

"  Though  in  yesterday's  paper  we  showed  how  every  thing  that  is 
great,  new,  or  beautiful,  is  apt  to  affect  the  imagination  with  pleasure,  we 
must  own  that  it  is  impossible  for  us  to  assign  the  necessary  cause  of  this 
pleasure,  because  we  know  neither  the  nature  of  an  idea  nor  the  substance 
of  a  human  soul ;  and  therefore,  for  want  of  such  a  light,  all  that  we  can 
do,  in  speculations  of  this  kind,  is  to  reflect  on  those  operations  of  the 
Roul  that  are  most  agreeable ;  and  to  range,  under  their  proper  heads, 
what  is  pleasing  or  displeasing  to  the  mind,  without  bemg  able  to  trace 
out  the  several  necessary  and  eflfi.cient  causes  from  whence  the  pleasure  or 
displeasure  arises." 

Amended,  it  will  stand  thus  : 

"  In  yesterday's  paper  we  showed  that  every  thing  which  is  great,  new, 
or  beautiful,  is  apt  to  affect  the  imagination  with  pleasure.  We  must  ow:«i 
iihat  it  is  impossible  to  assign  the  efficient  cause  of  this  pleasure,  because 
we  know  not  the  nature,  either  of  an  idea  or  of  the  human  soul.  All  that 
we  can  do,  therefore,  in  speculations  of  this  kind,  is  to  reflect  on  the 
operations  of  the  soul  which  are  most  agreeable,  and  to  range,  under 
proper  heads,  what  is  pleasing  or  displeasing  to  the  mind." 

Rule  IY. — Let  no  words  he  omitted  that  are  necessary 
to  a  clear  discovery  of  the  intended  meaning. 

Ellipsis  frequently  is  used  without  creating  obscurity ;  but 
when  obscurity  would  arise  from  the  omission  of  some  word  or 
words,  such  should  always  be  supplied. 

Example:  "He  is  inspired  with  a  true  sense  of  that  function^  when 
thosen  from  a  regard  to  the  interests  of  piety  and  virtue."  Sense  here 
means  an  impression  made  on  the  mind,  and  which  a  function  is  not 
suited  to  produce.  The  ellipsis  may  thus  be  supplied,  and  the  sentence 
rendered  clear;  "  He  is  inspired  with  a  true  sense  of  the  dignity  or  of  the 
iinportance  of  that  function,  when,"  &c. 


EXERCISES    ON    CLEARNESS.  207 


Exercises. 

Make  clear  the  following  sentences,  by  supplying  those 
words,  the  omission  of  which  causes  obscurity : 

You  ought  to  contemn  all  the  wit  in  the  world  against  you. 

He  talks  all  the  way  up  stairs  to  a  visit. 

Arbitrary  power  I  look  upon  as  a  greater  evil  than  anarchy  itself,  as  mucli 
OB  a  savage  is  a  happier  state  of  life  than  a  slave  at  the  oar. 

This  courage  among  the  adversaries  of  the  court  was  inspired  into  them 
by  various  incidents,  for  every  one  of  which  I  think  the  ministers,  or,  if 
that  were  the  case,  the  minister  alone,  is  to  answer. 

I  beg  of  you  never  let  the  glory  of  our  nation,  who  made  France  tremble, 
and  yet  has  the  gentleness  to  be  unable  to  bear  opposition  from  the  mean- 
est of  his  own  countrymen,  be  calumniated,  <fec. 


LESSON  LXXXIII. 

CLEARNESS    IN  THE   STRUCTURE    OF   SENTENCES. 

Rule  V. — Avoid  the  use  of  equivocal  terms  (terms  ot 
double  meaning),  unless  the  connection  is  such  as  to  pre- 
clude the  possibility  of  mistaking  the  true  import ;  avoids 
for  the  same  reason,  such  an  arrangement  of  words  as 
would  make  the  construction  equivocal^  or  convey  different 
senses  from  that  which  is  intended. 

Sometimes  a  single  word  is  equivocal ;  as,  in  the  following  in- 
Btances,  a  preposition : 

"  I  am  persuaded  that  neither  life  nor  death — shall  be  able  to  separate  us 
from  the  love  of  God."  This  may  be  understood  in  either  of  two  ways— 
of  God's  love  to  us,  or  of  our  love  to  Him.  So,  in  the  example — "  A  little 
after  the  reformation  of  Luther,"  which  may  mean  either  a  reformation  in 
him,  or  a  reformation  by  him. 

The  conjunction  is  sometimes  equivocal. 

•*  They  were  both  more  ancient  among  the  Persians  than  Zoroaster  or 
Zerdusht,"  Here  the  conjunction  leaves  it  altogether  undetermined 
whether  these  names  belong  to  one  and  the  same,  or  to  different  persono. 


208  CLEARNESS. 

If  they  stood  (though  in  this  case  they  do  not)  for  different  persons,  the 
ambiguity  would  be  removed  by  the  use  of  either  before  the  first  of  the 
names ;  but  if  for  the  same  person,  the  meaning  would  be  rendered  clear 
only  by  inserting  some  explanatory  phrase  :  "  Zoroaster,  sometimes  called 
Zerdusht." 

The  noun  may  he  equivocal. 

"  Your  majesty  has  lost  all  hopes  of  any  future  excises  by  their  conmimp- 
Uoti^^^  a  word  which  means  either  the  act  of  consuming,  or  the  state  of  be- 
ing consumed.  To  be  clear,  the  latter  part  should  stand  "  excises  on  what 
they  shall  consume." 

Instance  of  an  equivocal  adjective. 

*'  As  for  such  animals  as  are  mortal  or  noxious,  we  have  a  right  to  destroy 
them."  This  adjective  means  either  "  subject  to  death,"  or  "  death-pro- 
ducing." It  is  taken  in  the  former  sense  usually,  unless  connected  with 
the  name  of  something  destructive  or  dangerous ;  as,  "  mortal  wound," 
"  mortal  poison,"  &c. 

Instance  of  an  equivocal  verb, 

"  The  manuscript  was  overlooked  by  one  man,  and  many  passages  wholly 
written  by  another."  Overlooked  means  either  revised^  or  neglected.  The 
former  must  be  the  meaning  in  this  passage,  and  revised  should  have  been 
used  in  the  place  of  overlooked. 

Equivocal 'phrases.^  as  well  as  equivocal  words,  should  not  he  used. 

Not  the  least  and  not  the  smallest  are  of  this  description.  They  some 
times  mean  the  same  as  the  phrase  not  any ;  sometimes  they  mean  a  very 
great.,  as  in  the  passage,  "  Your  character  of  universal  guardian,  joined  to 
the  concern  you  ought  to  have  for  the  cause  of  virtue  and  religion,  assure 
me  you  will  not  think  that  clergymen,  when  injured,  have  the  least  right 
to  your  protection." 

The  phrase  '-''nothing  less  than'"'  is  also  susceptible  of  opposite  interpre- 
tations ;  thus,  "He  aimed  at  nothing  less  than  the  crown,"  means  either, 
*'  Nothing  was  less  aimed  at  by  him  than  the  crown,"  or,  "Nothing  infe- 
rior to  the  crown  would  satisfy  his  ambition." 

The  phrase,  ^'' I  will  have  mercy,^^  in  the  sentence,  "  I  will  have  mercy, 
and  not  sacrifice,"  is  equivocal.  As  commonly  used  it  means,  "I  will 
exercise  mercy,"  but  here  it  bears  its  other  meaning,  "  I  desire  mercy ;" 
"  it  is  my  will  that  you  should  exercise  mercy ;"  "  I  prefer  mercy  to  sacri- 
fice, as  acts  on  your  part." 

A  double.,  or  an  equivocal  meaning.,  arises  sometimes  from  a 
careless  and  faulty  construction  of  the  sentence. 

Examples  :  "  Solomon,  the  son  of  David,  who  built  the  temple  of  Je- 
rusalem, was  the  richest  monarch  of  the  people  of  God  ;"  *'  Solomon,  tli 


CLEARNESS.  209 

son  of  David,  who  was  persecuted  by  Saul,  was  the  richest,"  &c.  In  these 
two  sentences  who  is  similarly  placed,  but  must  be  referred  (for  the  sake 
of  historical  accuracy)  to  two  different  persons — in  the  first  to  Solomon, 
in  the  second  to  David.  To  avoid  such  doubtful  construction,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  change  the  arrangement  and  construction  in  the  first  sentence, 
thus  :  "  Solomon,  the  son  of  David,  and  the  builder  of  the  temple  of  Je- 
rusalem, was  the  richest,"  &c.  The  second  sentence  will  be  made  clear 
by  being  altered  thus  :  "  Solomon,  whose  father  David  was  persecuted  by 
Saul,  was  the  richest,"  &c. 

The  pronouns  he  and  Ms  are  often  used  ambiguously.  Rather 
than  allow  ambiguity,  the  noun  should  be  used  instead  of  the  pro- 
noun, for  the  repetition  of  a  word,  when  necessary  to  clearness,  is 
not  objectionable. 

Ex.  1. — "  Lysias  promised  to  his  father  never  to  abandon  his  friends." 
Here  it  is  doubtful  whether  the  friends  of  Lysias,  or  of  the  father  of  Lysias, 
are  intended.  Such  sentences  may  be  rendered  clear  by  using  the  dramatic 
form  of  narrative:  thus,  "Lysias  promised  his  father  in  these  words,  I 
will  never  abandon  my  friends  ;"  or,  if  the  friends  of  the  father  were  in- 
tended, "  I  will  never  abandon  thy  friends."  The  sentiment  may  also  bo 
expressed  in  this  way  :  '*  Lysias,  speaking  of  his  friends,  promised  to  his 
father  never  to  abandon  them ;"  or,  "  Lysias,  speaking  of  his  father's 
friends,  promised  to  his  father  never  to  abandon  them." 

Ex.  2. — "  We  said  to  my  lord.  The  lad  cannot  leave  his  father ;  for 
if  he  should  leave  his  father,  his  father  would  die."  Here  ambiguity  is 
avoided  by  the  repetition  of  the  words  his  father.  Had  the  pronoun  been 
used  in  the  latter  part  of  the  sentence,  it  would  have  been  doubtful 
whether  the  son  or  the  father  was  intended  ;  thus,  "  If  he  should  leave  his 
father,  he  would  die." 

Adjectives^  unless  adjoined  to  the  nouns  to  which  they  belong., 
create  ambiguity  ;  thus, 

"  God  heapeth  favors  on  his  servants  ever  liberal  and  faithful."  If  it  was 
intended  to  describe  God  as  liberal  and  faithful,  the  form  of  the  sentence 
should  be,  "  God,  ever  liberal  and  faithful,  heapeth  favors  on  his  servants." 
If,  on  the  other  hand,  it  was  the  design  of  the  writer  thus  to  characterize 
the  servants,  the  form  shcdd  be,  *'  God  heapeth  favors  on  his  ever  liberaJ 
and  faithful  servants." 


210  CLEARNESS. 


LESSON  LXXXIV. 

CLEARNESS   IN   THE   STRUCTURE   OP   SENTENCES. 

If  the  equivocal  and  ambiguous  should  be  avoided,  much 
more  should  the  unintelligible  be  avoided. 

This  style  of  sentences  may  arise,  either  from  confusion 
of  thought,  and  from  imperfect  conceptions  in  the  mind  of 
the  writer;  or  from  an  affectation  of  originality,  pro- 
fundity, sublimity,  or  exquisite  beauty  of  expression,  or 
form  of  sentence,  or  from  want  of  meaning. 

There  are  various  kinds  of  nonsense^  ranged  by  Dr. 
Campbell  under  the  heads  of  puerile^  learned^  profound^ 
and  marvellous. 

The  puerile  is  exemplified  when  a  writer  employs  a  specious  flow 
of  words,  consisting  of  synonymous  terms  and  identical  proposi- 
tions, well-turned  periods,  and  high-sounding  words;  but  at  the 
same  time  using  those  words  so  indefinitely  that  either  no  intelli- 
gible meaning  is  expressed,  or  almost  any  meaning  may  be  deduced 
from  them.  This  has  been  already  referred  to,  and  illustrated, 
under  Rule  XL,  on  "  Propriety  of  Expression." 

The  learned  nonsense  is  fully  exemplified  in  the  scholastic  theol- 
ogy of  the  middle  ages.  Dr.  Campbell  speaks  of  a  preacher  he  had 
heard  of,  who,  desirous  to  appear  very  profound,  and  to  make 
observations  on  the  commonest  subjects  which  had  never  occurred 
to  anybody  before,  remarked,  as  an  instance  of  the  goodness  of 
Providence,  that  the  moments  of  time  come  successively,  and  not 
simultaneously  or  together;  which  last  method  of  coming  would, 
he  said,  occasion  infinite  confusion  in  the  world. 

Metaphyskjal  philosophy  also  can  furnish  innumerable  specimens 
of  learned  nonsense. 

The  profound  species  of  nonsense  may  often  be  seen  in  writings 
on  government  and  political  aflfairs,  wherein  the  merest  nothing  is 
presented  with  solemn  air,  as  the  most  profound  secret,  and  the 
clabo^-ate  result  of  deep  reflection. 


UNITY.  21] 

The  ma/rcellous  is  that  which  astonishes  and  confounds  by  its 
bold  aflBrmations,  contradicting  the  plainest  dictates  of  common- 
sense,  and  involving  a  gross  absurdity.  This  is  seen  in  treatises  on 
the  principles  of  some  of  the  fine  arts ;  it  is  to  be  found  also  in  the 
poets.  Thus,  in  one  of  Dryden's  plays,  a  lover  is  represented  as 
saying: 

"  My  wound  is  great,  because  it  is  so  small." 

The  Duke  of  Buckingham,  hearing  the  above  line,  exclaimed  at 
once, 

"  It  would  be  greater,  were  it  none  at  all  I" 

thus  exposing  its  nonsense. 


LESSON    LXXXV. 

ITNITY    IN    THE    CONSTRUCTION    OF    SENTENCES    AND    PARA- 
GRAPHS. 

In  the  construction  of  sentences, 

A  correct  and  well-constructed  sentence  has  a  oneness  of 
meaning  and  form  of  expression ;  it  contains  but  one  prom- 
inent idea  or  leading  proposition,  whether  it  be  a  senti- 
ment, proposition,  or  fact,  and  all  its  parts  or  members 
have  a  common  connection  with  it.  To  preserve  the  unity 
of  the  meaning  and  construction  of  a  sentence,  observe  the 
following  Rules : 

Rule  I. —  The  scene  of  action  and  the  agents  introduced 
should  he  continued  unchanged  in  each  sentence. 

The  introduction  of  a  variety  of  circumstances  and  agents  into 
a  single  sentence  renders  it  difficult  of  comprehension,  and  is  at 
variance  with  that  primary  rule  for  the  construction  of  a  correct 
sentence,  which  requires  that  it  should  make  only  one  distinct  im- 
pression on  the  mind,  employing  but  one  subject  or  nominative 
from  its  beginning  to  its  close.  Various  and  unlike  objects  or  ideas 
grouped  together  in  a  single  sentence,  not  only  destroy  its  unity, 


218  UNITY. 

but  they  present  a  confused  image  to  the  mind.  The  thoughts 
introduced  into  a  sentence  must  be  so  closely  related  as  not  to  dis- 
tract our  attention.     Hence, 

Rule  II. — Never  crowd  into  one  sentence  things  which 
have  so  little  connection  and  mutual  dependence^  that  they 
may  admit  of  being  presented  in  two  or  more  sentences. 

Superfluous  relative  words  and  clauses  impair  the  unity  that  is 
desirable  in  the  structure  of  a  sentence. 

Rule  III. —  The  insertion  of  parentheses^  unless  very 
shorty  within  the  limits  of  a  sentence^  should  be  avoided^  as 
being  often  injurious  to  its  unity  and  beauty. 

Rule  IY. — All  extraneous  observations  at  the  close  of  a 
sentence  must  be  omitted. 

When  a  sentence  is  complete,  and  we  naturally  expect  that  a 
new  sentence  will  commence,  no  additional  circumstance  should  be 
appended. 

Rule  V. — The  unity  of  a  sentence  requires  that  it  be 
brought  to  a  full  and  complete  close;  otherwise  an  entire 
or  perfect  sentence  is  not  formed. 

As  to  unity  in  the  construction  of  paragraphs^  it  is  required 
that  different  topics,  those  having  no  necessary  relation  to,  or 
dependence  on  each  other,  should  occupy  different  paragraphs,  or 
larger  divisions  of  the  thoughts  expressed. 

Abrupt  and  short  sentences  should  not  too  frequently  appear 
in  succession ;  for,  although  they  appear  to  give  energy  to  style, 
yet  they  possess  less  dignity,  and  convey  our  ideas  less  clearly 
to  the  mind,  than  longer  sentences  carefully  constructed.  They 
also  make  a  less  forcible  impression.  Take  the  following  ex- 
ample : 

"  Nor  let  any  church  of  our  order  take  upon  itself,  as  a  necessary  part  of 
its  character,  the  form  of  aggression.  This  is  often  said  to  belong  to  it.  If 
the  calm  and  consistent  presentation  of  principles  be  the  strong  assault 
upon  their  opposites,  then  such  must  be  our  offence.  But  it  is  no  more. 
We  seek  not  to  condemn.  To  maintain  the  right  is  our  duty.  Against 
what  may  be  wrong,  there  may  be  in  this  an  implicit  rebiko.  Yet  it  is  not 
lor  us  to  trouble  other  churches." 


EXERCISES   ON    UNITY.  213 


Exercises. 

Construct  and  write  the  following  sentences  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  comply  with  the  rules  of  unity : 

Archbishop  Tillotson,  who  died  in  this  year,  was  exceedingly  beloved 
by  King  William  and  Queen  Mary,  who  nominated  Dr.  Tennison,  bishop 
of  Lincoln,  to  succeed  him. 

The  sun  approaching  melts  the  snow,  and  breaks  the  icy  fetters  of  the 
main,  where  vast  sea-monsters  pierce  through  floating  islands,  with  arms 
which  can  withstand  the  crystal  rock ;  while  others,  that  of  themselves 
seem  great  as  islands,  are,  by  the  bulk  alone,  armed  against  all  but  man, 
whose  superiority  over  creatures  of  such  stupendous  size  and  power,  should 
make  him  mindful  of  his  privilege  of  reason,  and  force  him  to  adore  the 
great  Composer  of  these  wondrous  frames,  and  the  Author  of  his  own 
superior  wisdom. 


LESSON  LXXXVI. 

STRENGTH   AND   VIVACITY    OF   EXPRESSION. 

Strength  signifies  the  power  of  arresting  attention  and 
of  forcibly  influencing  the  mind.  The  strength  of  a  sen- 
tence denotes  such  a  selection  and  arrangement  of  its 
words  and  members  as  will  produce  a  clear,  and  strong, 
and  vivid  impression  of  the  writer's  meaning. 

Rule  I. — Be  concise ;  employ  no  redundant  words  or  , 
members. 

Verbosity,  and  the  multiplying  of  clauses  in  a  sentence,  tend  to 
enfeeble  its  force.  Mere  epithets,  and  expletives,  and  the  mention 
of  unnecessary  circumstances,  are,  therefore,  to  be  avoided.  It  may 
be  adopted  as  a  maxim,  that  any  words  which  are  superfluous 
detract  from  the  force  of  a  sentence.  As  every  word  ought  to 
present  a  new  idea,  so  every  member  ought  to  contain  a  new 
thought. 

Rule  II. — .Place  the  jyrincipal  word  or  words  in  a  coiv 


214  STRENGTH    AND   VIVACITY. 

spicuous  position^  that  it  may  secure  the  special  attention 
of  the  reader  or  hearer. 

Such-  a  position  is  generally  found  at  the  beginning  of  a  sen- 
tence ;  sometimes,  however,  as  when  we  desire  to  detain  the  mind 
and  excite  curiosity,  the  latter  part  of  a  sentence  is  to  be  preferred 
as  the  location  of  the  principal  word  or  words. 

The  inversion  of  the  grammatical  and  logical  construction  of  the 
clauses^  or  members  of  a  sentence^  tends  to  give  force  and  vivacity  to 
thought;  thus: 

"  Great  is  Diana  of  the  Ephesians  ;"  "  Blessed  is  he  that  cometh  in  the 
name  of  the  Lord ;"  "  Whom  ye  ignorantly  worship,  Him  declare  I  unto 
you ;"  "  Your  fathers,  where  are  they  ?  and  the  prophets,  do  they  live  for 
ever?"  "Better  is  little  with  righteousness,  than  great  revenues  without 
right ;"  "  They  sank  as  lead,  in  the  mighty  waters." 

When,  however,  we  desire  to  hold  the  attention,  and  to  suspend 
curiosity,  the  important  words  and  clauses  may  be  advantageously 
reserved  for  the  end  of  the  sentence ;  thus : 

"  On  whatever  side  we  contemplate  Homer,  what  principally  strikes  us 
is  his  wonderful  invention ;"  "  All  these  things  will  I  give  thee,  if  thou 
wilt  fall  down  and  worship  me." 

In  whatever  part  of  the  sentence  the  principal  word  or  clause  is 
placed,  it  should  not  he  encumbered  or  obscui'ed  by  any  other  words. 

Rule  III. — Omitting  superfluous  words,  particular  at- 
tention must  be  paid  to  the  proper  use  of  all  words  expres- 
sive of  transition  and  connection;  such  as  hut^  and^  lohich^ 
whose^  where^  &c. 

The  separation  of  a  preposition  from  the  noun  it  governs  is  to  be 
avoided ;  as  in  the  sentence,  "  Though  virtue  borrows  no  assist 
ance  from,  yet  it  may  often  be  accompanied  by,  the  advantages  of 
fortune." 

Demonstrative  and  relative  particles  should  be  sparingly  used  ; 
as  in  the  following :  "  There  is  nothing  which  disgusts  us  sooner 
than  the  empty  pomp  of  language."  Such  formal  phraseology  ia 
fitting  in  introducing  a  subject,  or  laying  down  a  proposition,  but 
at  other  times  a  more  simple  and  concise  form  of  expression  is  to 
be  preferred;  as,  "Nothing  disgusts  us  sooner  than  the  empty 
pomp  of  language." 


STRENGTH    AND    VIVACITY.  215 

The  relative^  though  it  may  in  certain  connections  be  omitted 
without  sacrifice  of  clearness,  and  need  not  be  inserted  in  familiar 
writings,  yet  in  those  of  a  dignified  kind  it  should  generally  be 
expressed;  as,  "the  man  I  love,"  "the  books  I  read,"  should  be 
written,  "the  man  whom  I  love,"  "the  books  which  I  read." 

The  strength  and  mvacity  of  a  sentence  is  greatly  promoted  by 
the  slcilful  application  or  omission  of  the  connective  '''' and^^''  and 
the  disjunctives  '''neither,^''  ^^nor,^''  ''' either^^''  ''''or.''"'  By  their 
repetition  in  the  enumeration  of  several  particulars,  additional 
weight  and  distinctness  are  secured  to  a  statement:  on  the  other 
hand,  by  their  omission,  a  close  connection,  a  quick  transition,  or 
a  rapid  succession  of  objects  is  expressed. 

The  unnecessary  repetition  of  '•^  and''''  is  enfeebling^  like  the  vul- 
gar phrase  and  so^  in  telling  a  story ;  and  yet,  when  we  are  enu- 
merating several  objects,  and  wish  that  they  should  appear  as 
distinct  from  each,  and  that  the  mind  should  dwell  upon  each 
separately,  connectives  may  be  advantageously  inserted ;  for  ex- 
ample : 

"Such  a  man  might  fall  a  victim  to  power;  but  truth  and  reason  and 
liberty  would  fall  with  him."  The  same  thing  is  seen  in  a  sentence  from 
one  of  St.  Paul's  Letters:  "1  am  persuaded  that  neither  life,  nor  death, 
nor  angels,  nor  principalities,  nor  powers,  nor  things  present,  nor  things 
to  come,  nor  height,  nor  depth,  nor  any  other  creature,  shall  be  able  to 
separate  us  from  the  love  of  God." 

That  by  dropping  the  connective  a  closer  connection  and  more 
rapid  succession  are  expressed,  we  see  in  the  well-known  remark 
of  Ciesar,  "Yeni,  vidi,  vici,"  ("I  came,  I  saw,  I  conquered;"  or 
"I  came,  saw,  conquered.") 


LESSON  LXXXVII. 

STRENGTH    IN   THE   STEUCTUKE    OF   SENTENCES. 

Rule  IV. — In  the  members  of  a  sentence,  when  two 
things  are  compared  or  contrasted,  where  a  resemblance 
or  an  opposition  is  designed  to  he  expressed,  a  correspond 


216  STRENGTH  OF  SENTENCES. 

ing  resemblance  or  contrast^  in   the  language  and  con- 
stniction^  should  be  effected.     For  example ; 

The  clauses  should  be  nearly  of  an  equal  length :  the  same  num- 
ber of  nouns  should  be  employed  in  the  contrasted  or  compound 
clauses  of  the  sentence :  the  correlative  nouns  should  be  qualified 
by  appropriate  adjectives.  These  directions  are  beautifully  ex- 
hibited in  Pope's  Preface  to  his  Homer: 

"Homer  was  the  greater  genius;  Virgil,  the  better  artist:  in  the  one 
we  most  admire  the  man ;  in  the  other,  the  work.  Homer  hurries  us  with 
a  commanding  impetuosity;  Virgil  leads  us  with  an  attractive  majesty. 
Homer  scatters  with  a  generous  profusion ;  Virgil  bestows  with  a  careful 
magnificence.  Homer,  like  the  Nile,  pours  out  his  riches  with  a  sudden 
overflow ;  Virgil,  like  a  river  in  its  banks,  with  a  constant  stream.  And 
when  we  look  upon  their  machines.  Homer  seems  like  his  own  Jupiter  in 
his  terrors,  shaking  Olympus,  scathing  the  lightnings,  and  firing  the 
heavens;  Virgil,  like  the  same  power,  in  his  benevolence,  counselling 
with  the  gods,  laying  plans  for  empires,  and  ordering  his  whole  creation." 

Such  regularity  and  correspondence  of  structure  should  not, 
however,  be  frequent  and  protracted,  as  it  would  produce  too 
much  uniformity,  and  tire  the  ear. 

Rule  V. — The  strength  of  sentences  should  be  promoted 
by  disposing  the  members  so  that  they  shall  rise  and  grow 
in  itnportance  to  the  end:  this  i&  denominated  Climax, 

Example. — "  This  decency,  this  grace,  this  propriety  of  manners  to  char- 
acter, is  so  essential  to  princes  in  particular,  that,  whenever  it  is  neglected, 
their  virtues  lose  a  great  degree  of  lustre,  and  their  defects  acquire  much 
aggravation.  Nay,  more :  by  neglecting  this  decency  and  this  grace,  and 
for  want  of  a  sufficient  regard  to  appearances,  even  their  virtues  may  be- 
tray them  into  failings,  their  failings  into  vices,  and  their  vices  into  habits 
unworthy  of  princes  and  unworthy  of  men." 

This  sort  of  oratorical  climax  is  not  easily  executed ;  nor  should 
it  always  be  sought  after,  as  it  would  give  to  composition  too 
elaborate  and  artificial  an  air.  Yet  it  is  important  always  to 
observe  the  rule  so  far  as  this :  a  weaker  assertion  or  proposition 
should  never  'be  placed  after  a  stronger  one  ;  and  where  a  sentence 
consists  of  two  or  more  memhers^  the  concluding  one  should  gen- 
erally he  the  longest:  for  example,  "  When  our  passions  have  for- 
saken us,  we  flatter  ourselves  with  the  belief  that  we  have  for- 
'^aken  them." 


STKENGTH   OB"   SENTENCES.  217 

Rule  VI, — Ko  sentence  should  he  terminated  with  an 
adverb^  a  preposition^  or  other  inconsiderable  word^  tmless 
hy  such  location  an  emphasis  and  increased  signijicance 
^hall  be  given  to  th'C  meaning. 

There  are  sentences  wherein  the  stress  lies  upon  some  words  of 
tills  sort;  but  when  these  words  are  not  emphatic,  and  are  used 
merely  to  qualify  other  words,  they  should  generally  occupy  a 
less  prominent  place.  As  an  example  of  the  first  remark:  "In 
their  prosperity,  my  friends  shall  never  hear  of  me ;  in  tlieir  ad- 
versity, always."  As  an  example  of  the  second  remark :  *' Avarice 
is  a  crime  of  which  wise  men  are  often  guilty." 

Such  compound  verbs  as  bring  dbout^  lay  hold  of^  come  over  to^ 
clear  up^  &c.,  do  not  usually  make  so  energetic  an  ending  to  a 
sentence  as  a  simple  verb.  The  pronoun  it  makes  a  feeble  ter- 
mination to  a  sentence,  especially  when  preceded  by  one  of  the 
prepositions;  as,  in  it,  with  it,  &c.  The  same  thing  may  be 
said  of  a  phrase  expressive  only  of  some  additional  circumstance, 
as  for  instance :  "  A  great  advance  towards  this  union  was  the 
condition  of  parties,  so  happily  begun,  so  successfully  carried  on, 
and  of  late,  so  unaccountably  neglected;  to  say  no  worse^ 

Such  phrases,  or  circumstantial  clauses,  should  be  located  in  a 
preceding  part  of  the  sentence,  that  the  more  important  words 
may,  unincumbered,  occupy  the  last  place. 

It  is  an  important  rule,  also,  that  circumstances  should  he  judi- 
ciously interspersed  through  different  parts  of  a  sentence,  being 
placed  nearest  the  words  to  which  they  relate,  and  should  not  be 
crowded  together  in  succession. 

Whatever  may  be  said  of  the  effect  upon  the  strength  of  a 
sentence,  It  adds  greatly  to  its  vivacity,  and  avoids  stiffness 
and  too  great  stateliness,  to  place  at  the  end  of  a  sentence 
the  particles  referred  to,  in  the  case  of  short  sentences,  or 
where  the  preposition  idiomatically  belongs  to  the  verb  and 
forms  one  phrase  with  it,  as  in  some  compound  verbs  men- 
tioned above,  and  in  such  expressions  as  these:  "the  book  you 
were  speaking  of;"  "the  school  you  were  at;"  "the  man  you 
were  talking  to." 

The  omission  also  of  the  relative  which^  often  relieves  a  sen- 
tence of  the  stiffness  and  formality  which  the  use  of  it  would 
occasion,  especially  in  conversation  or  in  letter- writing. 

JO 


218  VIVACITY   OF   EXIEESSION. 


lESSON  LXXXVIII. 

VIVACITY     OF     EXPRESSION. 

Rule. — Employ  specific  words ^  when  suitable^  in  prefer- 
ence to  general  or  abstract  terras, 

Nothing  contributes  more  to  enliven  an  expression  than  to 
select  such  words  as  are  particular  and  determinate  in  their  sig- 
nification. The  more  general  the  terms  employed,  the  more  faint 
is  the  picture  they  present;  the  more  specific  they  are,  the 
brighter  is  the  picture.  When  it  can  properly  be  done,  let  a  class 
of  sensible  objects  be  described  by  an  individual  of  that  class ; 
let  an  intellectual  subject  be  illustrated  by  a  reference  to  a  sensi- 
tie  object ;  and  let  an  abstract  idea  be  made  more  plain  by  em- 
ploying the  analogy  between  it  and  some  quality  in  a  sensible 
object. 

Illustrations:  Instead  of  using  the  word  mountain^  Milton, 
with  fine  e^ect,  says : 

'*  O'er  many  a  frozen,  many  a  fiery  Alp^ 

Kocks,  caves,"  &c. 

In  the  song  of  Moses,  instead  of  saying,  '•'•  T\\Qy  fell  as  metal  in 
the  mighty  waters,"  how  much  more  impressively  is  it  written, 
"They  sanTc  as  lead  in  the  mighty  waters!" 

Notice  the  superior  vividness  of  the  picture  presented  to  the 
mind  in  the  specific  language  used  by  our  Saviour,  as  compared 
with  that  produced  by  the  use  of  general  expressions. 

He  says :  "  Consider  the  lilies^  how  they  grow  ;  they  toil  not,  they  spin 
not,  and  yet  I  say  unto  you,  that  Solomon  in  all  his  glory  was  not  arrayed 
like  one  of  these.  If  then  God  so  clothe  the  grass^  which  to-day  is  in  the 
Jield  and  to-morrow  is  cast  into  the  oven^  how  much  more  will  he  clothe 
youl" 

Now  let  the  same  ideas  be  expressed  in  a  diflferent  phraseology : 

"  Consider  the  Jlowers^  how  they  gradually  increase  w  size;  they  do  tw 
manner  ofworh^  and  yet  I  declare  to  you  that  no  Icing  wTiate'ver^  in  his  most 
splendid  garments^  is  dressed  up  like  them.  If,  then,  God  in  his  provi- 
dence doth  so  adorn  the  vegetable  productions^  which  continue  but  a  UtlU 


VIVACITY   OF   EXPRESSION.  219 

time  on  the  land  and  are  afterwards  consiim«>d  hyfire^  how  much  more  will 
he  clothe  you  ? 

Examples  of  tJie  use  of  different  parts  of  speech  in  giving  signif- 
icance and  vivacity^  by  the  use  of  those  which  are  specific  in  their 
meaning : 

Shakspeare  might  have  described  Antony  as  saying,  over  the  dead  body 
of  (ysesar,  "  Those  honorable  men  who  killed  Caesar,''  but  how  much  more 
forcible  are  the  words  which  he  employed:  "  Those  honorable  men  whose 
daggers  have  stabbed  Csesar!" 

Paul,  in  addressing  the  Ephesians,  might  have  said:  "Yea,  ye  your- 
selves know  that  I  have  labored  for  the  supply  of  my  own  wants ;"  but 
more  impressively  he  says :  "  Yea,  ye  yourselves  know  that  these  hands 
have  ministered  to  my  necessities." 

The  word  execution^  or  hanging,  is  a  more  vivid  expression  than  "  the 
infliction  of  the  sentence  of  death  on  a  criminal." 

So  M^ton's  comparison  of  Satan  to  "a  cornwranV  gives  a  more  vivid 
idea  than  if  he  had  said  "  a  bird  of  prey. ^"^  Again,  in  describing  the  atti- 
tude of  Satan  when  in  the  act  of  infusing  bad  thoughts  into  the  mind  of 
Eve,  he  uses  the  best,  because  most  specific  word,  perhaps,  in  the  language 
for  this  purpose — 

"  Him  there  they  found, 
Sqimt  like  a  toad,  close  at  the  ear  of  Eve." 

The  next  example  shows  that  an  adverh  which  is  very  particu- 
lar in  its  significatioD,  contributes  to  vivacity : 

*'  Some  say,  he  bid  his  angels  turn  askance 
The  poles  of  earth,  twice  ten  degrees  and  more, 
From  the  sun's  axle." 

If  instead  of  asTcance  the  poet  had  used  the  word  aside^  the  ex- 
pression would  have  been  less  appropriate  and  forcible.  The  lat- 
ter would  have  been  equally  proper  if  the  inclination  of  the  plane 
of  the  ecliptic  had  been  made  even  perpendicular  to  that  of  the 
equator ;  whereas  the  word  asTcance  in  that  case  could  not  have 
been  employed,  denoting  a  much  smaller  obliquity. 

Remark  also  the  appropriateness  and  specialty  of  the  expres- 
sion used  by  Thomson — 

"  Lo  !  now  apparent  all, 
Aslant  the  dew-bright  earth  and  color' d  air, 
He  looks  in  boundless  majesty  abroad." 

It  enlivens  the  imagery  and  adds  force  to  our  expressions,  when 
we  not  only  particularize,  but  even  individuate  the  object  pre- 
sented to  the  mind.     For  this  peculiarity  the  poems  of  0.s«ian  are 


220  VIVACITY    OF   EXPRESSION. 

remnrkable.  His  comparisons  bring  to  our  view  "  the  mist  on 
the  Hill  of  Or omler^''''  *'the  storm  on  the  Sea  of  Malmor^^''  and 
"tlie  reeds  of  the  LaJce  of  LezoP 

So  the  sacred  writers :  "  Swift  as  a  roe  or  as  a  fawn  upon  Mount  Befher^"* 
**  white  as  the  snow  in  Salmon^''''  "fragrant  as  the  smell  of  LehanonJ*^ 

Again,  whatever  tends  to  subject  the  things  spoken  of  to  the  cognizance 
of  our  senses,  especially  of  our  eyes,  greatly  enlivens  the  expression;  as 
in  a  passage  already  quoted  :  "  Ye  yourselves  know  that  these  hands  hav 
ministered  to  my  necessities." 

The  words  yon  and  yonder  are  more  emphatical,  because  riiore  demon 
strative,  than  that  and  there^  as  the  former  imply  that  the  object  referred  to 
i?  one  of  sight ;  as, 

"  For  proof,  look  up, 
And  read  thy  fate  in  yon  celestial  sign."    Milton, 

The  expression  is  more  vivid  than  would  have  been  ^''that  celestial 
sign." 

*'  Sit  ye  here,  while  I  go  and  pray  yonder^''''  is  more  vivid  than  "  pray  ihere,^^ 

In  compositions  of  the  descriptive  kind,  it  is  best,  for  giving  a 
vivid  conception,  to  advance  from  general  expressions  to  special, 
and  thence  again  to  those  more  particular;  as  in  the  Song  of 
Solomon  (ii.,  10- 13)  : 

"  My  beloved  spake  and  said  to  me  :  Arise,  my  love,  my  fair,  and  come 
away ;  for,  lo !  the  winter  is  past,  the  rain  is  over  and  gone,  the  flowers 
appear  on  the  earth,  the  time  of  the  singing  of  birds  is  come,  and  the  voice 
of  the  turtle  is  heard  in  our  land  ;  the  fig-tree  putteth  forth  her  green  figs, 
and  the  vines  with  the  tender  grape  perfume  the  air." 

In  this  passage  the  most  general  expression  is  first  used :  "  The 
vrinter  is  past;"  the  next  is  more  special,  "the  rain"  (one  of  the 
disagreeable  attendants  on  winter),  "is  over  and  gone."  Then 
are  mentioned  the  particular  effects  of  the  coming  of  spring — ^first 
in  the  use  of  the  more  general  iQvmQ^  flowers  and  hirds^  then  of 
the  particular  terms,  turtle^  fig-tree^  and  mne. 


LESSON  LXXXIX. 

IHE   HARMONY,  OR   MELODIOUS   STRUCTURE   OF   SENTENCES. 

This  quality  depends,  of  course,  upon  the  proper  choice 
and  arrangement  of  words,  rendering  the  sentence  easy  or 


HARMONY   OF   SENTENCES.  221 

pronunciation,  and  agreeable  to  the  ear  when  pronounced. 
The  term  harmony  sometimes  denotes  an  accordance  be- 
tween the  sense  and  the  sound  of  the  words,  so  that  these, 
in  some  cases,  require  to  be  difficult  of  pronunciation,  harsh, 
and  disagreeable  in  sound.  Whether  the  sound  be  agree- 
able or  otherwise,  the  sense  should,  as  far  as  possible,  be 
represented  by  the  sound  of  the  words  selected.  True  har- 
many  does  not  consist  in  adopting  the  most  m,usical  words 
and  phrases^  hut  in  the  choice  and  fitting  arrangement  of 
such  a  succession  of  sounds  as  shall  most  clearly  indicate 
the  feelings  originated  hy  the  thoughts  expressed.  Hence 
harsh  words  are,  for  certain  purposes,  more  consistent  with 
rhetorical  harmony  than  words  of  agreeable  sound.  The 
following  extracts  afford  illustration  of  the  truth  of  these 
remarks : 

First,  in  relation  to  melodious  sounds : 

"  And  at  night  so  cloudless  and  so  still !  Not  a  voice  of  living  thing— 
not  a  whisper  of  leaf  or  waving  bough — not  a  breath  of  wind — not  a  sonrd 
upon  the  earth,  or  in  the  air  I  And  overhead  bends  the  blue  sky,  dewy 
and  soft,  and  radiant  with  innumerable  stars,  like  the  inverted  bell  of  some 
blue  flower,  sprinkled  with  golden  dust,  and  breathing  fragrance." — H^ 
perion. 

Secondly,  in  relation  to  harsh  sounds: 

"Now  swells  the  intermingling  din.     The  jar, 
Frequent  and  frightful,  of  the  bursting  bomb; 
The  falling  beam,  the  shriek,  the  groan,  the  shout, 
The  ceaseless  clangor,  and  the  rush  of  men 
Inebriate  with  rage  !     Loud  and  more  loud 
The  discord  grows,  till  pale  Death  shuts  the  scene, 
And  o'er  the  conqueror  and  the  conquerM  draws 
His  cold  and  bloody  shroud."  Shelley's  "  Queen  Mab.^* 

"  But  then  his  style  !  In  very  truth,  it  is  the  strangest  of  stylos, 
though  one  of  the  richest — a  style  full  of  originality,  picturesque- 
ness,  sunny  vigor ;  but  all  cased  and  slated  over,  threefold,  in  meta- 
])hor  and  trope;  distracted  into  tortuosities,  dislocations;  start- 
ing out  into  crotchets,  cramp  terms,  quaintnesses,  and  hidden 
satire." — Carlyle^  '''•On  Miradeau.'''' 


222  RHETORICAL   HARMONY. 


Rules  for  Rhetorical  Harmony. 

Rule  I. — Unless  where  necessary  for  expressiveness, 
avoid,  in  the  choice  of  words,  those  which  are  harsh,  grating, 
unmelodious ;  these,  for  example  : 

(1.)  In  which  there  is  a  concurrence  of  the  same  vowel ;  as,  re-estimated, 
co-ordinal^  &c. 

(2.)  Those  which  contain  two  or  more  rongh-sounding  consonants  ;  as 
chroniclers^  perturbed^  grudged^  &c. 

(S.)  Those  in  which  the  same  letters  or  similar  syllables  frequently  re- 
car  ;  as,  pre-reactlonary^  holily^  sillily^  farriery^  &c. 

(4.)  Long  compound  words,  when  more  fluent  and  equally  expressive 
synonyms  can  be  found ;  such  as  shamefacedness^  distressfully^  unsuccess- 
fulness^  <Sjc. 

(5.)  Such  long  words  as  are  of  diflScult  pronunciation  because  the  accent 
falls  on  the  first  part  of  the  word ;  as,  arbitrarily^  felicitously^  cursorily, 
ferem'ptoriness^  &c. 

Words  are  most  agreeable  to  the  ear  when  they  are  composed 
of  smooth  and  liquid  sounds ;  when  there  is  a  due  admixture  of 
vowels  and  consonants ;  when  there  are  not  too  mauy  harsh  con- 
sonants rubbing  against  each  other,  and  when  there  are  not  too 
many  open  vowels  in  succession,  to  cause  a  disagreeable  opening 
of  the  mouth  in  their  pronunciation.  Vowels  give  softness,  con- 
sonants give  strength  to  words.  A  just  proportion  of  both  is  de- 
sirable. Long  words  are  commonly  more  agreeable  to  the  ear 
than  short  ones.  Among  long  words,  those  are  most  melodious 
which  are  composed  of  an  intermixture  of  long  and  short  sylla- 
bles ;  such  as,  velocity,  celerity,  independent,  impetuosity,  &c. 

Rule  II. — In  the  arrangement  of  words,  place  them  go 
as  to  produce  an  agreeable  sound.     Hence, 

(1.)  Guard  against  placing  words  in  succession  that  begin  with  an  aspi- 
rated A;  as,  "his  historical  genius.*' 

(2.)  Words  ending  in  a  certain  sound  should  not  be  immediately  fol- 
lowed by  words  that  begin  with  the  same  sound;  as,  "sterile  illiteracy." 

(3.)  Words  ending  in  a  vowel  sound  should  not  be  succeeded  by  words 
beginning  with  a  vowel  sound:  as,  "Though  all  do  owe  you  honor;" 
"  Go  !  no  evil  will  befall  you." 

(4.)  So  words  ending  with  a  consonant  sound  should  not  be  followed  by 
a  word  which  begins  with  a  similar  consonant  sound ;  as,  "  Who  dares  Um 
Xc/'xes  with  injustice  ?"     Strihe^  iconoclast  I"  "  living  j/w^ham,"  &c. 


EHETORICAL   HARMONY.  223 

(5.)  Do  not  place  in  immediate  succession  words  whose  first  syllables 
have  the  same  sound,  or  the  final  sound  of  which  is  similar  to  the  first  syl- 
lable of  the  succeeding  word  ;  as,  I  can  m/J-didly  ca/^vass  CaTiterbury. 

(6.)  Words  ending  in  similar  sounds  should  not  immediately  succeed 
each  other;  as,  "I  confess  with  \\\\mility  the  sterility  of  my  fancy,  and  the 
iehility  of  my  judgment." 

(7.)  A  succession  of  monosyllables  is  inharmonious;  as,  "You  do  not 
wish  to  go  on  on  this  bad  road  far,  father,"  &c. 


LESSON   XG. 

THE    HARMONIOUS    STRUCTURE    OF    SENTENCES. 

Rule  III. — ^In  composing  a  paragraph,  there  should  be 
a  judicious  intermingling  of  long,  short,  and  intermediate 
sentences. 

Short  sentences  are  conversational,  and  long  ones  are  oratorical. 
Conversational  ease,  and  idiomatic  familiarity  of  expression  should 
be  used,  as  much  as  is  consistent  with  the  dignity  and  elevation 
•that  is  suited  to  the  subject  or  v^riter. 

Rule  IV. — Arrange  the  clauses  of  a  sentence  with  a 
view  to  ease  in  their  pronunciation^  and  to  an  agreeable 
impression  %tpon  the  ear.     Hence,  ^ 

(1).  They  should  not  be  too  long,  so  as  to  tax  the  lungs. 

(2).  The  clauses  should  be  generally  arranged  in  the  order  of 
their  length  and  importance,  that  is,  in  a  climax.  The  length  of 
the  clauses  should  increase  with  the  importance  of  the  thought,  the 
longest  members  of  the  period  and  the  most  sonorous  words  being 
reserved  to  the  close.  For  example,  Mr.  Addison,  speaking  of  the 
sense  of  sight,  observes :  "It  fills  the  mind  with  the  largest  variety 
of  ideas ;  converses  with  its  objects  at  the  greatest  distance ;  and 
continues  the  longest  in  action  without  being  tired  or  satiated 
with  its  proper  enjoyments." 

(3).  A  falling  off  at  the  end  of  a  sentence  impairs  the  harmony; 
hence,  generally  it  is  not  expedient  to  end  a  clause  or  sentence  with 
a  monosyllable;  and  very  seldom  should  the  monosyllable  that 


224  RHETORICAL    HARMONY. 

ends  a  sentence  be  emphatic.  Such  a  sentence,  therefore,  as  the 
following,  is  wanting  in  harmony:  "It  is  a  mystery  which  we 
firmly  believe  the  truth  of,  and  humbly  adore  the  depth  of." 
Harmony  is  secured  by  a  slight  transposition :  "  It  is  a  mysterv 
the  truth  of  which  we  firmly  believe,  and  the  depth  of  which  we 
humbly  adore." 

In  general,  the  musical  close  of  a  sentence  requires  either  the  laFt 
syllable,  or  the  last  but  one,  to  be  a  long  syllable. 

It  must  be  observed,  however,  that  a  uniform  construction  of 
sentences,  according  to  rules  just  laid  down,  will  give  to  our  com- 
positions an  air  too  declamatory,  and  artificial,  and  elaborate. 
But  short  sentences  must  be  intermingled  with  long  ones,  so  as  to 
break  up  a  monotony  that  soon  tires. 

Examples  of  harmonious  writing: 

"  We  shall  conduct  yon  to  a  hill-side,"  says  Milton,  "laborious,  indeed, 
at  the  lirst  ascent ;  bnt  else,  so  smooth,  so  green,  so  full  of  goodly  prospects 
and  melodious  sounds  on  every  side,  that  the  harp  of  Orpheus  was  nO't 
more  charming."  The  words  are  all  happily  chosen,  and  their  collocation 
cannot  be  improved. 

Says  our  own  Washington  Irving  (in  the  Sketch  Book),  describ- 
ing the  female  sex  when  slighted  by  the  object  of  their  affection : 

"  How  many  bright  eyes  grow  dim  ;  how  many  cheeks  grow  pale ;  how 
numy  lovely  forms  fade  away  into  the  tomb,  and  none  can  tell  the  cause 
that  blighted  their  loveliness !  As  the  dove  will  clasp  its  wings  to  its 
side,  and  cover  and  conceal  the  arrow  that  is  preying  on  its  vitals,  so  it 
is  the  nature  of  woman  to  bide  from  the  world  the  pangs  of  wounded 
uifcction." 

Rule  Y. — Let  the  sound  of  the  words  he  adapied  to 
the  ideas  and  sentiments  which  they  are  intended  to 
express. 

Disagreeable  ideas,  stern  and  impetuous  passions  should  find  ex- 
pression in  rough  and  harsh  sounds :  on  the  other  hand,  pleasing 
ideas  and  benign  affections  must  be  expressed  ii^  soft  and  flowing 
forms  of  speech.  Gloomy,  solemn,  vast,  and  majestic  subjects  I'e- 
quire  the  use  of  slow  measures  and  long  words ;  brisk  and  lively 
fjentiments,  the  reverse. 


CLEARNESS    AND    HARMONY.  225 


LESSON  XCI. 

CLEAR   AND    HARMONIOUS   CONSTRUCTION    OF   THE   PERIODIC 
SENTENCE. 

During  the  progress  of  a  period  the  reader  is  in  constant 
expectation  of  a  meaning  ;  in  being  gradually  brought  to 
the  close,  which  is  to  complete  this  meaning,  there  should 
be  nothing  to  retard  the  intellect,  nor  even  to  disappoint 
the  ear.  The  whole  period,  as  one  expression,  should  no 
sooner  terminate  than  its  one  meaning,  growing  out  of  the 
meaning  of  its  several  parts,  should  be  readily  and  accu- 
rately discovered. 

In  the  following  examples,  these  conditions  of  a  well- 
constructed  period  are  violated,  in  different  ways,  and  in 
different  degrees. 

Ex.  1. — "  Men  of  the  best  sense  have  been  touched,  more  or  less,  with 
these  groundless  horrors,  and  presages  of  futurity,  on  surveying  the  most 
indifferent  works  of  nature ^ 

This  period  divides  sX  futurity  mio  logical  verb,  and  logical  ad- 
verbial or  prepositional  clause.  It  vrill  be  improved  by  making 
these  change  places,  so  that  the  adverbial  clause  shall  be  the  pro- 
tasis, and  the  verb  tlie  apodosis,  giving  meaning  to  what,  without 
such  change,  is  comparatively  meaningless.  Thus,  '*  On  survey- 
ing, &c.,  men  of  the  best  sense,"  &c. 

Ex.  2. — "  Whether  a  choice  altogether  unexceptionable  has  been  made 
in  any  country,  seems  doubffuV 

Here  the  logical  adverb,  in  any  country^  terminates  the  protasis 
with  lagging  effect :  it  would  be  better  placed  between  the  parts 
of  the  grammatical  verb  ;  thus, ,"  has,  in  any  country  been  made  ;" 
and,  better  still,  before  the  whole  of  the  logical  verb  contained  in 
the  protasis  ;   thus,  ''  Whether,  in  any  country,  a  choice,"  &o. 

Ex.  3. — "  Gentleness  ought  to  diifnse  itself  over  our  whole  behavior,  io 
form  our  addresn^  and  to  regulate  our  speechV 

10* 


226 


CLEARNESS    AND    HARMONY. 


The  apodosis  of  this  period,  if  we  esteem  it  to  begin  after  the 
word  hehavior^  is  a  failure ;  for  the  last  two  clauses  contain  no 
meaning  which  was  not  included  in  the  protasis,  and  they  disap- 
point even  the  ear  by  their  abruptness,  as  compared  with  the  more 
flowing  drift  of  what  precedes.     Recast,  thus  : 

"  Gentleness  ought  to  form  our  address,  to  regulate  our  speech,  and  to 
diffuse  itself  over  our  whole  'behavior.'''' 

Ex.  4. — "  Charity  breathes  long-suflGering  to  our  enemies,  courtesy  to 
strangers,  hahitual  kindness  towards  friends.'''' 

■  This  example  offends  in  the  same  way  as  the  last;  the  natural 
order  of  circumstances  will  give  the  following  arrangement : 

"  Charity  breathes  habitual  kindness  towards  friends,  courtesy  to 
strangers,  long-suffering  to  enemies.'^'' 

It  is  true  we  miss,  in  this  example,  the  flowing  close,  but  we 
must  not  sacrifice  a  climax  in  sense  for  a  climax  in  sound  only.  A 
better  way  of  pronouncing  the  example  than  that  indicated  by  the 
italics.,  will  be  to  pause  suspensively  at  charity^  so  as  to  make  that 
single  word  the  protasis,  and  all  that  follows,  the  apodosis. 

Ex.  5. — "It  is  impossible  continually  to  be  at  work."  • 

Continually  is  so  placed  as  to  prevent  the  protasis  from  coming 
to  a  suspension  with  good  effect,  and  the  apodosis  from  being 
strong  and  pointed  as  a  conclusion.  Rhetoric,  not  grammar, 
teaches  the  following  arrangement: 

*'  It  is  impossible  to  be  at  work  continually.''^ 

We  say  that  grammar  does  not  teach  this  arrangement,  or  how 
is  it  that  the  following  example  fails  ? 

Ex.  6. — *'  The  heavenly  bodies  are  in  motion  perpetually." 

To  obtain  for  this  period  a  suitable  protasis,  the  suspensive 
pause  should  be  at  bodies : 

**  The  heavenly  bodies  are  perpetually  in  motion." 

The  apodosis  is  now  a  logical  verb,  among  the  parts  of  which 
the  adverb  perpetually  takes  the  place  where  we  expect  to  find  it. 

Ex.  7. — '*  It  was  a  practice  which  no  one  knew  the  origin  of'' 

'*  The  happy  message  will,  I  hope,  be  applied  to  us,  in  all  virtue,  strength, 

and  comfort  of  it." 

The  strong  repugnance  which  writers  of  the  last  century  had  to 

closing  ^  sentence  with  monosyllables,  has,  of  late  years,  much 


CLEARNESS   AND   HARMONl  S27 

given  way,  the  fact  being  that  a  monosyllabic  preposition,  or  pro* 
noun,  so  placed,  reaches  the  ear  and  the  understanding  as  a  sylla- 
ble of  the  word  it  follows,  and  not  as  a  distinct  word.  Yet  the 
taste  generated  by  the  old  practice  is  still  so  strong  that  we  must 
yield  to  it  in  examples  like  the  foregoing,  whenever  the  style  is  in- 
tended to  be  at  all  raised  above  the  colloquial.  Alter  the  apodo- 
sis,  therefore,  as  follows:  ^^  of  which  no  one  hnew  the  origin;'''* 
"  in  all  its  virtue,  strength,  an^  comfort." 

Ex.  8. — "  Tranquillity,  regularity,  and  magnanimity,  reside  with  the  re- 
ligious and  the  resigned  man.'''' 

To  avoid  these  similar  consecutive  terminations  in  the  protasis, 
change  regularity  for  the  equivalent  word  order  ;  and  to  prevent 
two  adjectives  which  begin  with  the  same  syllable  from  coming 
together  in  the  apodosis,  change  religious  into  the  equivalent  word 
pious.  *  These  changes  are  sacrifices  to  the  ear ;  and  changes  on 
the  same  account  will  often  be  proper  when  words,  from  whatever 
cause,  join  with  inharmonious  effect.  Thus,  it  is  more  flowing  to 
say,  "sloth,  ease,  and  prosperity," than  "sloth, ease,  and  success;" 
and  perhaps  still  better  to  avoid  the  consecutive  monosyllables  by 
saying,  "  idleness,  ease,  and  prosperity."  On  a  similar  principle, 
it  may  be  better,  in  the  cadence  or  close  of  a  period,  to  say,  "a 
strong,  magnificent,  Gothic  edifice,"  than  "a strong,  grand,  Gothic 
house."  The  point,  however,  is  doubtful :  to  some  persons  the 
latter  may  appear  much  more  expressive  of  the  thing  described ; 
nor  is  it  possible  to  oppose  such  a  judgment  by  any  plea  except 
mere  difference  of  taste. 


LESSON  XCII. 

CLEAR  AND   HARMONIOUS   STRUCTURE   OF  THE  PERIODIC 

SENTENCE. 

EXEBOISES   ON   THE   PliEOEDING  LeSSON. 

Improve  the  following  periods : 

By  redistributing,  or  changing  the  parts  which  obscure  or  in- 
jure the  division  into  protasis  or  apodosis  ; 

Or,  by  establishing  a  proper  correspondence  of  one  to  the  other; 


228  EXERCISES   ON    HARMONY. 

Or,  by  placing  in  natural  order  the  circumstances  ttey  should 
exhibit; 

Or,  by  securing  the  harmonious  flow  or  the  forceful  point,  de- 
manded for  their  perfection. 

Let  us  endeavor  to  establish  to  ourselves  an  interest  in  Him,  who  hoMa 
the  reins  of  the  whole  creation  in  his  hands. 

Philip  the  Fourth  was  obliged,  at  last,  to  conclude  a  peace,  on  terms  re-  , 
pngnant  to  his  inclination,  to  that  of  hjs  people,  to  the  interests  of  Spain, 
and  to  that  of  all  Europe,  in  the  Pyrenean  treaty. 

Some  years  afterwards,  being  released  from  prison,  by  reason  of  his 
consummate  knowledge  of  civil  law,  and  of  military  affairs,  he  was  ex- 
alted to  the  supreme  power. 

It  appears  that  there  are,  by  a  late  calculation,  nearly  twenty-live  mil 
lion  of  inhabitants  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland. 

Were  instruction  an  essential  circumstance  in  epic  poetry,  it  may  be 
doubted  whether  a  single  instance  could  be  given  of  this  species  of  com- 
position, in  any  language. 

We  came  to  our  journey's  end  at  last,  with  no  small  dif&culty,  after 
much  fatigue,  through  deep  roads  and  bad  M^eather. 

Virgil  has  justly  contested  with  Homer  the  praise  of  judgment ;  but  his 
mvention  remains  yet  unrivalled. 

Let  us  employ  our  criticism  on  ourselves,  instead  of  being  critics  on  others. 

Let  us  implore  superior  assistance  for  enabling  us  to  act  our  own  part 
well,  leaving  others  to  be  judged  by  Him  who  searcheth  the  heart. 

The  vehemence  of  passion,  after  it  has  exercised  its  tyrannical  sway  for 
a  while,  may  subside  by  degrees. 

For  all  your'actions  you  must  hereafter  give  an  account,  and  particularly 
for  the  employments  of  youth. 

Though  religion  will  indeed  bring  us  under  some  restraints,  they  are 
very  tolerable ;  and  not  only  so,  but  desirable  on  the  whole. 

This  morning,  when  one  of  the  gay  females  was  looking  over  some 
hoods  and  ribbons  brought  by  her  tirewoman,  with  great  care  and  dili- 
gence, I  employed  no  less  in  examining  the  box  that  contained  them. 

He  was  taking  a  view,  from  a  window  of  the  cathedral,  at  Lichfield, 
where  a  party  of  royalists  had  fortified  themselves. 

Ambition  creates  seditions,  wars,  discord,  hatred,  and  shyness. 

Sloth  pours  upon  us  a  deluge  of  crimes  and  other  evils,  and  saps  the 
foundation  of  every  virtue. 

He  did  every  thing  in  his  power  to  serve  his  benefactor,  and  had  a  grate- 
ful sense  of  the  benefits  received. 

As  the  guilt  of  an  oiRcer  will  be  greater  than  that  of  a  common  servant, 
if  he  prove  negligent,  so  the  reward  of  his  fidelity  will  be  greater  propor- 
ionably. 

The  regular  tenor  of  a  virtuous  and  pious  life,  will  prove  the  best  pr^  pa- 
ration  for  immortality,  for  old  age,  and  death. 


EXERCISES   ON   HARMONY.  229 

Sinful  pleasures  blast  the  opening  prospects  of  humsu  felicity,  and  de- 
grade human  honor. 

In  this  state  of  mind,  every  employment  of  life  becomes  an  oppressive 
burden,  and  every  object  appears  gloomy. 

These  arguments  were,  without  hesitation,  and  with  great  eagerness,  laid 
hold  of. 

Form  your  measures  with  prudence  ;  but  all  over-anxiety  about  the  is- 
sue, divest  yourself  of. 

Many  would  gladly  exchange  their  honors,  beautv  and  riches,  for  that 
more  quiet  and  humble  station,  which  yon  a,rv  now  dissatisSe^J  with. 

We  often  acknowledge  the  existence  of  beauty,  without  inquiring:  mto 
the  cause  of  it. 

Under  all  its  labors,  hope  is  the  mind's  solace  ;  and  the  situations  which 
exclude  it  entirely  are  few. 

The  humbling  of  the  mighty,  and  the  precipitation  of  the  ambitious, 
concern  the  bulk  of  us  but  little. 

What  an  anchor  is  to  a  ship  on  a  boisterous  ocean,  near  a  coast  unknown, 
and  in  a  dark  night,  is,  when  distracted  by  the  confusions  of  the  world, 
the  hope  of  future  happiness  to  the  soul. 

The  British  constitution  stands,  like  an  ancient  oak  in  the  wood,  among 
the  nations  of  the  earth,  which,  after  having  overcome  many  a  blast,  over- 
tops the  other  trees  of  the  forest,  and  commands  respect  and  awe. 

Words  may  be  chosen  which  shall  in  sound  resemble  the  sounds 
of  various  objects  which  we  may  endeavor  to  describe,  such  aa 
the  sound  of  winds,  or  of  flowing  streams  of  water :  thus  we  speak 
of  the  whistling  of  winds,  the  duzz  and  hum  of  insects,  the  hiss 
of  serpents,  the  crash  of  falling  trees. 

Milton,  by  a  skilful  choice  of  words,  happily  discriminates  the 
sounds  of  the  opening  of  Heaven's  gates,  from  those  of  Hell,  in 
the  following  passages : 

"  On  a  sudden,  open  iiy. 

With  impetuous  recoil,  and  jarring  sound, 
Th'  infernal  doors ;  and  on  their  hinges  grate 
Harsh  thunder." 

'*  Heaven  opened  wide 

Her  ever-during  gates,  harmonious  sound. 
On  golden  hinges  turning." 

Again,  it  is  in  the  power  of  words,  by  their  sound,  to  represent 
itiotion  as  swift  or  slow,  violent  or  gentle,  easy  or  laborious.  Words 
of  long  syllables  give  the  impression  of  slow  motion  ;  while  a 
succession  of  short  syllables  suggests  to  the  mind  rapid  mution. 


230  .  SIMPLICITY    OF   STYLE. 

It  will  be  noticed  how  effectively  huge  size,  slownefis  and  diffi- 
culty of  motion,  heaviness,  and  unwieldiness,  are  expressed  in  the 
lines  of  Milton : 

"Part,  huge  of  bulk, 
Wallowing,  unwieldy,  enormous  in  their  gait, 
Tempest  the  ocean." 

*'  Scarce  from  his  mould 
Behemoth,  biggest  born  of  earth,  upheaved 
His  vastness." 

The  account  of  Satan's  journey,  in  the  Ninth  Book  of  the  Para- 
dise Lost,  is  an  exquisite  specimen  of  harmonious  composition. 

Pope's  poetical  writings  exhibit  also  many  fine  illustrations  of 
the  harmonious  structure  of  sentences,  and  of  the  imitative  har- 
mony of  sound  and  sense :  for  instance, 

"  And  ten  low  words  oft  creep  in  one  dull  line, 
*  *  *  4t  *  * 

Which,  like  a  wounded  snake,  drags  its  slow  length  along.' 

"  But  when  loud  surges  lash  the  sounding  shore, 
The  hoarse,  rough  verse,  should  like  the  torrent  roar." 

"  With  many  a  weary  step,  and  many  a  groan, 
Up  the  high  hill  he  heaves  a  huge  round  stone." 

'    "  Soft  IS  the  strain  when  Zephyr  gently  blows, 

And  the  smootfi  stream  in  smoother  numbers  flows." 

"  Deep-echoing  groan  the  thickets  brown, 
Then  rustling,  crackling,  crushing,  thunder  down." 

"  First  march  the  heavy  mules,  securely  slow. 
O'er  hills,  o'er  dales,  o'er  crags,  o'er  rocks  they  go." 

"Just  writes  to  make  his  barrenness  appear, 
Andstrains  from  hard-bound  brains  eight  lines  a  year." 


LESSON  XCIII. 

THE  NATURE  AND  QUALITIES  OP  STYLE. 
THE   SIMPLE,    OR   NATUEAL   STYLE. 

Style  is  the  manner  in  whicK  we  express  our  thoughts 
by  means  of  language.     This  manner  ought  to  vary  wit)/ 


SIMPLICITY    OF   STYLl.  231 

the  subject.  Dr.  Blair  speaks  of  style  as  being  either  dif- 
fuse or  concise ;  nervous  or  feeble ;  dry  or  florid ;  simple 
or  affected ;  plain,  neat,  or  elegant ;  and  vehement. 

Mr.  Williams,  'whom  we  shall  follow,  considers  style  un- 
der the  threefold  division  of  Simple  or  Natural,  Elegant, 
and  Sublime. 

The  Simple  or  Natural  Style, 

"Simplicity  of  style,"  says  Dr.  Beattie,  "is  not  easily  acquired, 
or  described;  it  is  the  eifect  of  much  practice,  a  clear  under- 
standing, and  great  knowledge  of  the  language.  A  simple  style  is 
perfectly  easy,  natural,  and  perspicuous,  without  either  defect  or 
redundance.  It  admits  of  ornament;  but  all  its  ornaments  seem 
to  present  themselves  of  their  own  accord,  without  being  sought 
for.  It  conveys  the  idea  of  great  plainness  and  candor  in  the 
writer,  and  looks  more  Hke  the  work  of  chance  than  of  art,  though 
in  reality  it  is  the  effect  of  great  art.  But  it  is  only  by  studying 
the  best  authors  (for  they  in  every  language  are  in  style  the  sim- 
plest), that  one  can  either  understand  this  simplicity  or  practice  . 
it.  In  simplicity,  and  in  harmony,  Addison  is  a  model.  The  style 
of  Scripture,  especially  in  the  historical  parts  and  in  the  Psalms, 
is  majestically  and  inimitably  simple." 

The  Natural  or  Simple  Style  adopts  the  logical  order  of  a  sen- 
tence— the  subject  being  presented  first,  and  the  predicate  fol- 
lowing. 

The  peculiar  properties  of  Simplicity  of  Style^  are  plain- 
ness, neatness,  conciseness,  vivacity,  vigor  of  thought  and 
of  expression.  It  is  defective,  when  it  is  harsh,  dry,  abrupt, 
obscure,  feeble,  verbose,  florid,  affected,  or  artificial. 

The  simple  style  is  adapted  to  all  subjects^  to  the  most  obvious, 
and  to  the  most  abstruse  and  profound.  It  is  suited  to  all  kinds 
of  writing — descriptive,  didactic,  moral,  epistolary,  philosophical, 
or  humorous.     It  is  compatible  with  grace  and  ornament. 

Not  only  in  diction,  but  in  tliought,  should  simplicity  be  studied. 
The  most  obvious  association  of  ideas  should  be  observed  in  pass» 
ing  from  each  sentence  to  the  following  one. 

A  narration  should  proceed  in  the  order  of  cause  and  effect^  ae^ 
cording  to  the  succession  of  circumstances^  and  in  the  order  of  time 


232  ELEGANCE    OF    STYLE. 

in  which  they  happened  ;  as  in  the  following  description  of  a  storm  . 
"The  wind  raged,  the  lightning  flashed,  the  thunder  roared,  the 
storm  was  indeed  terrific."  The  same  facts  stated  in  a  reversed 
order,  or  from  eflfect  to  cause,  is  less  natural  and  lively:  "The 
storm  was  indeed  terrific,  the  thunder  roared,  the  wind  raged,  the 
lightning  flashed,  and  the  rain  fell  in  torrents." 

Among  other  works  tliat  abound   in  simplicity  of  diction  and^^^ 
thought,  may  be  named  the  letters  of  Gray,  Cowper,  Burns;  the" 
Commentaries  of  Blackstone,  the  writings  of  Franklin,  of  Webster, 
and  of  Washingto»  Irving. 

Exercises. 

The  following  specimens  of  Simple  or  ISTatural  Style 
may  be  transcribed,  supplying  capital  letters  where  re- 
quired, and  punctuating  according  to  the  rules  heretofore 
given : 

April  I  the  singing  month  many  voices  of  many  birds  call  for  resur- 
rection over  the  graves  of  flowers  and  they  come  forth  go  see  what 
they  have  lost  what  have  ice  and  snow  and  storm  done  unto  them 
how  did  they  fall  into  the  earth  stripped  and  bare  how  do  they  come 
forth  opening  and  glorified  is  it  then  so  fearful  a  thing  to  lie  in  the 
grave  in  its  wild  career  shaking  and  scourged  of  storms  through  its 
orbit  the  earth  has  scattered  away  no  treasures  the  hand  that  governs 
in  april  governed  in  January  you  have  not  lost  what  god  has  only  hid- 
den you  lose  nothing  in  struggle  in  trial  in  bitter  distress  if  called  to 
shed  thy  joys  as  trees  their  leaves  if  the  affections  be  driven  back  into 
the  heart  as  the  life  of  flowers  to  their  roots  yet  be  patient  thou  shalt 
lift  up  thy  leaf-covered  boughs  again  thou  shalt  shoot  forth  from  thy 
roots  new  flowers  be  patient  wait  when  it  is  february  april  is  not  far 
oif     secretly  the  plants  love  each  other  H.  W.  B. 


LESSON  XCIV. 

THE  ELEGANT  STYLE. — THE  SUBLIME  STYLE, 

The  Elegant  or  Graceful  Style  possesses  not  only  the 
qualities  described  in  the  last  lesson,  but  also  a  certain 


THE   SUBLIME   STYLE.  *    233 

copiousness  of  expression,  and  all  the  embellishments  of 
figurative  language. 

By  copiousness  is  not  meant  an  easy  flow  of  high-sounding 
words,  or  the  use  of  a  multitude  of  synonymous  words ;  but  it 
consists  in  the  use  of  expressions  suited  to  convey  all  the  various 
modifications  of  thought.  An  elegant  writer  is  one  who  clotlies 
liis  ideas  in  all  the  beauty  of  expression,  while  he  avoids  all  mis- 
placed finery.  When  ornament  is  too  rich  and  gaudy  for  the  sub- 
ject; when  it  is  too  abundant  and  wears  a  dazzhng  brilliancy,  the 
style  is  denominated  florid.  This  may  be  pardoned  and  indulged 
in  a  young  writer;  but  a  tinsel  splendor  of  diction  which  some 
writers  constantly  afifect,  is  not  true  elegance,  nor  does  it  afford 
pleasure  to  persons  of  cultivated  taste. 

For  specimens  of  the  Elegant  style  we  may  refer  to  the  writings 
of  Irving,  Scott,  Hume,  Robertson,  Bancroft,  Prescott,  Webster, 
Clay,  Everett,  &c. 

The  Sublime  Style, — The  office  of  this  kind  of  style,  is 
to  describe  the  grand  and  sublime  agents  and  works  of 
nature,  the  magnificent  productions  of  art,  the  great 
actions  of  men,  the  lofty  aflfections  of  the  human  mind, 
with  simplicity,  conciseness,  and  strength. 

Whatever  ennobles  human  nature,  and  displays  superior  energy 
of  intellectual  and  moral  qualities,  is  a  proper  subject  for  this  kind 
of  style :  for  example,  an  heroic  disregard  of  danger  in  the  perform- 
ance of  duty  ;  great  presence  of  mind  in  difficulties  and  perils ;  dis- 
interested and  expanded  benevolence;  a  virtuous  superiority  to 
the  debased  propensities  of  human  nature  and  to  the  corrupt  prac- 
tices of  society ;  a  calm  and  dignified  self-possession  amid  the 
agitations  of  the  passions. 

To  write  with  suWimity,  to  furnish  a  sublime  description  of 
great  objects  and  events,  a  vivid  and  energetic  conception  of  them 
must  he  formed^  and  a  judicious  selection  made  of  the  most  affect- 
ing circumstances  connected  with  them.  Mean  and  inadequate 
ideas,  trivial  circumstances,  a  turgid  pomp  of  expression,  a  parade 
of  high-sounding  words,  an  accumulation  of  epithets,  and  all  forced 
embellishments,  are  incompatible  with  true  sublimity  of  language. 

The  sublime  lies  in  the  thought.^  not  in  the  words.     When  the 


234  THE   FRIGID    AND   BOMBASTIC. 

thought  is  noble,  it  will  generally  clothe  itself  in  di^^uity  of  lan- 
guage. The  great  secret  of  sublime  writing^  is  to  express  great 
things  in  few  and  plain  words.  The  most  sublime  writers  are,  for 
the  most  part,  the  simplest  in  their  style  of  expression. 

Opposite  to  the  sublime  in  writing,  are  the  frigid  and  tTie  lorn 
lastic.  The  former  consists  in  degrading  an  object  or  sentiment 
sublime  in  itself  by  our  mean  conception,  or  weak  and  childish 
description  of  it.  The  bombastic  lies  in  forcing  an  ordinary  or 
trivial  object  into  the  rank  of  a  sublime  one,  or  in  attempting 
to  exalt  unduly  a  subhme  object.  This  is  called  fustian,  or  rant. 
Hence  the  true  import  of  sublime  writing  is  such  a  description  of 
objects,  or  exhibition  of  sentiments,  which  are  in  themselves  of  a 
sublime  nature, -as  shall  give  us  strong  impressions  of  them,  and 
raise  in  us  elevated  and  ennobling  conceptions. 

A  short  specimen  of  the  bombastic : 

"  How  useful  are  they  who,  gaz'mg  on  '  the  outer  world  of  sense,'  de- 
scribe to  us  *  all  the  kingdoms  of  the  earth  and  the  glories  thereof;'  then 
directing  our  minds  to  other  scenes,  lead  us  in  thought  through  the  far- 
stretching  infinities  of  space,  beyond  *  Arcturus  with  his  suns,'  and  on- 
ward through  the  immense  vastitudes  which  the  Almighty  hand  has 
sprinkled  with  suns  and  world-systems,  while  at  the  same  time  it  is  pro- 
tended to  the  age-distant  periods  of  their  unswerving  circumvolvings  I" 


LESSON  XCV. 

MATERIALS    OF    THOUGHT    AND    EXPRESSION. — THE    FORMA- 
TION   OF    STYLE. 

In  literary  composition,  the  first  difficulty  relates  to  the 
collecting  of  materials,  the  knowing  what  to  write.  This 
difficulty  will  be  diminished  by  following  certain  instruc- 
tions : 

1.  Study  with  great  care  some  of  the  best  writers^  with 
a  view  not  only  to  amass  materials  of  thought,  but  to  learn 
from  them  the  skilful  choice  of  words,  the  best  modes  of 
constructing  a  sentence,  happy  turns  of  expression,  and 
application  of  language. 


THE   FORMATION   OF   STYLE.  236 

To  do  this  the  more  effectually,  read  a  page  of  some  good  wri- 
ter until  the  thoughts  are  understood ;  then  lay  aside  the  book, 
and  write  from  memory  as  nearly  as  possible  according  with  what 
you  have  read.  Upon  completing  this  task,  make  a  comparison 
of  what  you  have  written  with  the  page  of  the  author,  to  ascer- 
tain your  defects,  or  your  want  of  skill,  either  in  choice  of  words 
or  structure  of  sentences. 

The  same  result  may  be  attained  in  the  cl^ss-room,  if  the 
teacher  should  select  some  passage  and  read  it  several  times  to 
the  class,  and  then  require  the  class,  from  memory,  to  prepare  a 
written  report  of  the  passage  read ;  the  reports  to  be  afterwards 
carefully  compared  with  the  original,  and  corrections  or  improve- 
ments, if  necessary,  to  be  made. 

In  the  endeavor  to  imbue  our  minds  with  the  style  of  other 
authors,  we  must  avoid  a  servile  imitation,  lest  we  copy  faults  as 
well  as  excellencies,  and  hamper  the  action  of  our  own  minds. 

2.  Strive  to  form  clear  and  adequate  ideas  of  the  sub- 
ject upon  which  you  endeavor  to  write.  What  you  con- 
ceive clearly  and  feel  strongly,  you  will  readily  express  in 
a  perspicuous  and  forcible  manner. 

Think  closely  on  a  subject,  until  your  conceptions  are  clear  and 
•your  feelings  interested;  then  will  you  be  furnished  with  appro- 
priate expressions.  When  you  find  it  difficult  to  proceed,  review 
what  you  have  written,  dwelling  upon  every  sentence,  that  the 
law  of  association  may  suggest  additional  ideas.  *'  Write  "  (says 
one)  "  from  a  full  head.  You  might  as  well  attempt  to  scratch 
your  thoughts  upon  paper  without  ink,  or  pour  water  from  an 
empty  pitcher,  as  to  write  from  vacuity." 

3.  In  early  attempts  at  writing^  take  the  words  that 
most  readily  occur  to  the  mind^  not  aiming  at  elegance^  so 
much  as  at  readiness  and  accuracy.  At  the  same  time  be 
attentive  to  the  grammatical  structure  and  idioms  of  the 

.  language. 

Express  the  thought,  and  do  no  more  at  first ;  adorn  it  after-  , 
wards.  Avoid  using  the  same  word  more  frequently  than  is 
necessary.  Do  not  crowd  into  one  sentence  wJiat  should  make 
two  or  more. 


236  THE   FORMATION    OF   STYLE. 

4.  It  is  a  good  rule,  to  preserve  the  mind  in  a  calm^  coni^ 
posed^  natural^  a7id  tcnanxious  state,  that  it  may  operate 
with  advantage  in  elaborating  thought  and  expression. 

Patience  and  perseverance  also  are  important  to  the  beginner. 
The  great  Sir  Isaac  Newton  tells  us  that  when  he  wished  to  mas- 
ter any  subject,  he  fixed  his  attention  quietly  but  steadily  upon  it, 
and  thus  light  grew  out  of  darkness,  form  out  of  shapelessness, 
order  out  of  confusion,  till  the  subject  in  its  fulness  and  due  pro- 
portion stood  before  him. 

•  5.  Compose  frequently  and  carefully.  Until  the  habit 
of  writing  with  accuracy  and  neatness  is  acquired,  it  is  im- 
portant to  avoid  hasty  and  careless  composition.  Yet  it  is 
not  advisable  (as  above  intimated)  to  retard  the  progress 
of  thought  and  the  ardor  of  composition,  by  too  great  a 
care  upon  words  or  upon  their  arrangement. 

Some  time  after  the  composition  is  finished,  it  should  be  care- 
fully reviewed,  corrected,  and  made  as  perfect  as  the  writer  is  com- 
petent to  make  it,  according  to  the  rules  heretofore  given.  Some 
of  the  most  finished  writers  have  been  indebted  for  their  perfec- 
tion of  style  to  the  habit  of  frequent,  laborious,  and  careful  cor- 
rection of  their  writings,  in  the  way  now  recommended.  What 
is  said  of  Buflfon,  the  celebrated  French  naturalist  and  author, 
and  what  he  says  of  himself,  will  give  force  to  this  advice. 

"  I  have  passed  fifty  years  in  my  study,"  he  says  himself;  and  who  that 
would  be  willing  to  do  the  same  need  despair  of  leaving  their  mark  upon 
society?  Cuvier  tells  us  that  Buffon  was  obliged  to  recopy  the  manu- 
scripts of  his  Epochs  of  Nature,  one  of  the  greatest  efforts  of  the  imagina- 
tion since  the  appearance  of  Paradise  Lost,  eleven  times.  Another  au- 
thority says  eighteen. 

Buffon  was  accustomed,  after  a  first  work,  already  very  labored,  to  put 
aside  the  manuscript,  to  leave  it  without  thinking  of  it,  without  seeing  it, 
during  a  time  sufficiently  long  for  his  mind  to  become  entirely  free  from 
the  impression  under  which  he  had  composed  it.  When  he  took  it  up  . 
u^jiin,  after  securing  to  himself  as  calm  a  frame  of  mind  as  possible,  he  had 
it  read  aloud  to  him  by  a  person  to  whom  the  sketch  was  entirely  new. 
Every  phrase  of  which  the  reader  did  not  seize  the  construction,  which 
did  not  run  easily  and  harmoniously,  every  thought  which  did  not  belong 
to  the  general  sense,  and  which  embarrassed  or  confused  the  reason,  wufi 


THE   FORMATION    OF   STYLE.  237 

changed.  He  went  throijgh  this  courageous  labor  every  tune  thtt  a  newly- 
discovered  fact  required  a  modification. 

Frequently  the  work  upon  one  phrase  occupied  an  entire  morning; 
twenty  times  it  was  retouched.  "  I  impose  upon  myself  the  rule  to  be 
content  only  with  the  most  noble  expression,"  said  he. 

This  love  of  the  best  was  the  charm  of  Button's  life.  "  The  pleasure  of 
working  is  so  great,"  said  he,  "that  I  could  pass  fourteen  hours  at  study; 
and  it  is  only  the  pleasure  I  take  in  study  that  has  ever  turned  me  away 
from  the  thoughts  of  fame,"  The  dominating  quality  in  Butfon's  mind 
was  order,  and  he  applied  this  quality  to  every  thing. 

6.  With  respect  to  style,  it  must  be  adapted  to  the  sub- 
ject, and  to  the  capacities  and  habits  of^  those  for  whom 
we  write. 

To  accomplish  this,  when  we  begin  to  write,  we  must  fix  in  our 
minds  the  end  to  be  aimed  at,  the  purpose  to  be  effected,  and 
suit  our  style  of  thought  and  of  language  to  that  purpose.  That 
is  the  best  style,  which  most  truly  and  effectively  represents  the 
ideas  and  feelings  of  the  hour  and  of  the  occasion. 

7.  On  no  occasion  should  attention  to  style  so  engross 
the  mind  as  to  interfere  with  a  higher  degree  of  attention 
to  the  thoughts.  Some  writers  are  rich  and  luxuriant  in 
diction,  but  poor  and  meagre  in  thought. 

The  late  Prof.  Henry  Reed  has  given  the  following  ob- 
servations on  style,  that  may  be  introducgd  here  as  appro* 
priately  as  in  any  other  place : 

In  our  reading  of  English  prose,  it  is  well  worth  while  to  study 
A^hat  has  become  almost  a  lost  art.  I  mean  what  may  be  called 
tlie  architecture^  as  it  were,  of  a  long  and  elaborate  sentence,  with 
its  continuous  and  well-sustained  flow  of  thought  and  feeling, 
and,  however  interwoven,  orderly,  and  clear.  This  is  to  be  sought 
chiefly  in  the  great  prose-writers  of  former  centuries.  "Kead 
that  page,"  said  Coleridge,  pointing  to  one  of  them;  "you  can- 
not alter  one  conjunction  without  spoiling  the  sense.  It  is  a 
linked  strain  throughout.  In  your  modern  books,  for  the  most 
part,  the  sentences  in  a  page  have  the  same  connection  with  each 
other  that  marbles  have  in  a  bag:  they  touch  without  adhering." 
Junius,  waging  his  fierce,  factious  war,  fought  with  these  short, 
pointed  sentences,  piercing  his  foes  with  them;  and  it  has  been 


238  FIGURATIVE    EXPRESSION. 

said  that  nothing  but  Home  Tooke  and  a  long  sentence  were  an 
overmatch  for  him ;  and  in  our  day,  Macaulay,  waging  his  larger 
and  more  indiscriminate  war,  deals  so  exclusively  with  the  same 
fashion  of  speech,  that  if  you  undertake  to  read  his  history  aloud, 
your  voice  will  crave  a  good  old-fashioned,  long  sentence,  as  much 
as  your  heart  may  crave  more  of  the  repose  and  moderation  of  a 
deeper  philosophy  of  history.  This  fashion  of  short  sentences  is 
mischievous,  not  only  as  a  temptation  to  an  indolent  habit  of 
reading  (for  it  asks  a  much  less  sustained  attention),  but  it  is  fatal 
to  the  fine  rhythm  which  English  prose  is  capable  of.  As  I  can- 
not pause  to  consider  especially  the  nature  of  our  prose  rhythm, 
I  will  give  what  is  better,  a  sentence  from  the  pen  of  a  living 
divine,  which  is  an  example  of  true  prose  rhythm,  and  all  pure 
Enghsh  words : 

"  The  land  that  is  very  far  off — it  can  be  no  other  than  the  heavenly 
country,  for  love  of  which  God's  elect  have  lived  as  strangers  in  the  earth 
— a  land  far  away,  over  a  long  path  of  many  years,  up  weary  mountains, 
and  through  deep  broken  ways,  full  of  perils  and  ot  pitfalls,  through  sick- 
nesses and  weariness,  sorrows  and  burdens,  and  the  valley  of  the  shadow ; 
world-worn  and  foot-sore,  they  have  been  faring  forth,  one  by  one,  since 
the  world  began,  '  going  and  weeping.'  " 

There  is  no  appearance  of  art  in  this  sentence ;  but  the  highest 
art  could  not  more  truly  make  choice  and  combination  of  its 
words. 


LESSON   XCVI. 


FIGURATIVE   EXPRESSION. 


Words  and  forms  of  speech  naturally  and  originally  ap- 
plied to  one  class  of  objects,  are  often  applied  to  other 
classes,  either  from  necessity,  for  want  of  other  methods  oi 
expression,  or  from  the  promptings  of  imagination  or 
emotion. 

Thus,  the  words  morning  and  evening  being  originally  expres- 
sive of  the. first  and  last  parts  of  a  day,  the  phrases  morning  of 
life  and  evening  of  life  are  substituted  for  the  terms  youth  and 
age. 


FIGURATIVE    EXPRESSION.  239 

So  the  qualities  of  bodies  are  used  to  illustrate  the  qualities  of 
mind.  We  speak  of  a  solid  judgment,  a  fiery  temper,  a  hard  or 
soft  heart.  Love  is  said  to  warm  the  heart,  and  sympathy  is  said 
to  melt  the  heart. 

In  reference  to  the  flourishing  period  of  a  tree  or  plant,  we  may 
say,  "  The  m^iiiniion  flourished.'^''  Because  the  head  is  tlie  princi- 
pal part  of  the  body,  we  speak  of  the  proprietor  or  principal 
teacher  of  a  school,  as  "The  head  of  the  school." 

The  proposition,  "  Cromwell  treated  the  English  laws  with  con- 
tempt," is  far  more  vividly  expressed  by  saying,  "Cromwell 
trampled  on  the  laws."  To  speak  of  soldiers  as  brave  and  coura- 
geous, is  less  forcible  than  to  use  the  language  of  Heber : 

*'  Their  limbs  all  iron,  and  their  souls  all  flame." 

Thus,  for  the  sake  of  conveying  a  more  vivid  impression,  words 
strictly  applicable  only  to  sensible  objects,  are  applied  to  mental 
or  intellectual  objects  to  which  they  are  supposed  to  bear  some 
affinity  or  resemblance. 

Figures  of  thought^  or  figures  of  imagination  and  passion,  sup- 
pose the  words  to  be  used  in  their  proper  and  literal  meaning,  and 
the  figure  to  consist  in  the  turn  of  thought.  They  appear  in  ex- 
clamations, interrogations,  comparisons,  and  apostrophes. 

Thus  the  sentences,  "  I  am  happy  at  this  meeting ;"  "  You  give  me  great 
pleasure  ;"  "  We  are  obliged  by  your  kindness  ;"  "  Allow  me  to  assist ;" 
"Are  you  quite  well?"  "Oh!  that  I  were  in  health!"  are  figurative 
forms  of  speech,  which  include,  though  they  do  not  formally  express,  the 
following  logical  propositions :  "  Happiness  at  this  meeting  is  my  present 
state  of  feeling ;"  "  That  you  give  me  great  pleasure  is  what  I  declare  to 
you  ;"  "  Your  kindness  is  felt  by  us  to  be  obliging  ;"  "  That  I  should  as- 
sist you,  is  what  you  are  requested  to  allow  ;"  "  Whether  or  not  you  are 
quite  well,  is  what  I  ask  you  to  declare  ;"  "  That  I  were  in  health,  is  what 
I  ardently  wish."  Although  the  previously  stated  rhetorical  expressions 
have  not,  in  each  instance,  an  assigned  name,  so  as  to  brmg  them  all  under 
the  denominations  about  to  be  given  ;  although  they  are  quite  familiar  ex- 
pressions of  common  life,  they  have,  nevertheless,  quite  as  good  a  title  to 
be  considered  figures  of  speech  as  those  which  follow,  in  succeeding 
lessons. 

Hence  it  appears  that  figurative  language  stands  opposed  to 
plain  language.  It  results  either  from  the  peculiar  form  of  the 
fe^ntence,  or  from  turning  some  word  contained  in  it  to  an  un- 
usual application. 


240 


OR   OOMPAKISON. 


Thus,  if  instead  of  saying,  "  This  country  is  very  fertile,"  I  say,  "  How 
fertile  this  country  is  !"  I  use,  in  the  latter  case,  a  figurative  expression  ; 
the  whole  sentence  having  a  rhetorical  form  compared  with  the  other,  which 
is  simply  logical. 

Again,  if  instead  of  saying,  "  This  country  is  remarkable  for  fertility,"  1 
»ay,  "  It  smiles  with  fertility,"  I  also  use  a  figurative  expression ;  for  the 
word  smiles  is  applied  to  an  inanimate  object,  and  not,  as  usual,  to  the 
human  countenance.  There  is,  indeed,  by  means  of  this  turn^  an  implied 
Dcniparison  between  the  human  countenance  and  the  surface  of  a  country^ 
when  both  produce  a  similar  effect  on  the  feelings  of  the  observer. 

Of  these  two  examples,  the  former  is  strictly  a  figure  of  speech, 
that  is,  a  distinctive /(?rm  of  sentence;  and  the  latter  is  strictly 
called  a  trope^  or  the  turn  of  a  word  to  a  new  application.  Cus- 
tom, however,  confounds  the  difference  here  described. 

All  sentences  are  figurative,  though  not  commonly  so  consid- 
ered, which  express  in  a  brief  and  lively  manner  v^hat  logic  would 
draw  out  at  full,  in  periods  primarily  divisible  into  the  two  gram- 
matical parts,  nominative  in  the  third  person,  and  verb  indicative 
agreeing  with  it. 


LESSON   XCVII. 

THE   SIMILE,    OR   COMPARISON. 

Simile  is  the  comparison  of  two  objects,  between  which 
there  exists  a  real  or  imagined  resemblance.  It  has  one  of 
two  pm-poses  to  answer:  first,  to  illustrate  an  object,  to 
present  to  the  mind  a  clearer  idea  of  it,  and  to  make  it 
more  impressive ;  or,  secondly,  to  adorn  and  beautify  the 
object. 

Explanatory  comparisons  must  be  clear ;  they  must  make 
the  principal  object  more  distinct,  and  not  lead  us  aside 
from  it. 

Rules  as  to  the  Objects  whence  Comparisons  aee  drawn 

1.  They  must  not  de  draicn  from  things  which  hade  too  near  a 
^eeemhlance  to  the  olject  with  which  we  compare  thsm.    The  great 


RULES    FOR    THE   SIMILE.  241 

pleasure  of  the  act  of  comparing,  lies  in  discovering  likenesses 
ani(>ng  things  of  diffei-ent  kinds,  where  at  first  we  expect  no  re- 
semblance to  exist.  On  this  account  we  are  delighted  with  Mil- 
ton^s  comparison  of  Satan,  after  his  fall,  to  the  sun  when  eclipsed; 
but  we  derive  little  pleasure  from  his  comparison  of  Eve  to  a 
wood-nymph,  or  of  her  bower  to  that  of  Pomona. 

For  a  similar  reason,  comparisons  which  the  poets  have  rendered 
too  trite  and  familiar,  afford  only  moderate  gratificatioru 

2.  While  comparisons  should  not  be  founded  on  likenesses  too 
familiar  and  obvious,  they  should^  on  the  other  hand^  not  he  found- 
ed on  those  which  are  too  faint  and  remote;  for  these  fail  to  illus- 
trate the  subject. 

3.  Comparisons  should  Tiot  le  drawn  from  objects  that  are  un- 
known to  the  reader,  or  from  those  of  which  few  people  can  form 
a  clear  idea. 

4.  In  writings  of  a  dignified  or  serious  character,  comparisons 
should  be  drawn  from  objects  which  are  beautiful,  dignified,  or  im- 
portant;  for  the  primary  object  of  comparisons  is  to  embellish 
and  to  dignify.  In  humorous  or  burlesque  writings,  where  the 
aim  is  to  vilify,  or  render  ridiculous,  an  object,  comparisons  are 
properly  drawn  from  low  and  trivial  objects. 

5.  Comparisons,  unless  'oery  brief,  are  Twt  naturally  or  effec- 
tively introduced  in  the  midst  of  impassioned  language. 

Examples  of  Compasison  :  "  Charity,  lihe  the  sun,  brightens  every  ob- 
ject on  which  it  ehines." 

Ossian's  comparison  of  the  effect  of  music  on  the  mind  to  the 
recollection  of  departed  joys,  is  beautiful:  "The  music  of  Caryl 
was,  lihe  the  memory  of  joys  that  are  past,  pleasant,  and  mourn- 
ful to  the  soul." 

The  same  author  thus  beautifully  illustrates  the  fatal  effects  of 
sorrow  on  the  mind  : 

"  They  fall  away,  like  the  flower  on  which  the  sun  looJcs  in  Ms  strength^ 
after  the  mildew  has  passed  over  it,  and  its  head  is  heavy  with  the-  drops  of 
the  nigfd.''^ 

Shakspeare  thus  illustrates  the  destructive  effects  of  concealed 
lo78 : 

"  She  never  told  her  love, 

Bwt  let  concealment,  like  a  worm  V  the  budy 


242  EXAMPLES   OF   THE   SIMILE. 

Feed  on  lier  damask  cheek.    She  pined  in  thougJit, 
And  with  a  green  and  yellow  melancholy, 
She  sat,  like  Patience  on  a  monument^ 
Smiling  at  grief." 

Examples  from  more  recent  writers  : 

"  The  world  was  cold, 
And  he  went  down,  like  a  lone  ship  at  sea^  A,  SmWL 

"  Soon  was  he  quieted  to  slumb'rous  rest, 
*        *        *        *        and  as  a  willow  keeps 
A  patient  watch  over  the  stream  that  creeps 
Windingly  by  it,  so  the  quiet  maid 
Held  her  in  peace."  Keats. 

"  Thy  sweet  words  drop  upon  the  ear,  as  soft 
As  rose-leaves  on  a  welV  Bailey'' s  ^''Festits.''^ 

"  My  bosom,  like  the  grave,  holds  all  quench'd  passions."       Ibid. 

The  sacred  Scriptures  abound  in  comparisons,  most  beautiful 
and  pathetic ;  as, 

"  Man  Cometh  forth  as  a  jlower,  and  is  cut  down ;  he  fleeth  also  as  a 
shadow,  and  continueth  not." 

Comparisons,  as  already  stated,  sometimes  are  suited  to  degradt 
the  primary  object.  Thus  Milton  disparages  the  courage  and  re- 
sistance of  the  fallen  angels ; 

''  Gabriel ,  as  a  herd 

Of  goats,  or  tim'rous  flock,  together  throng'd. 
Drove  them  before  him,  thunder-struck,  pursued 
With  terrors  and  with  furi'  ^  to  the  bounds 
And  crystal  wall  of  heaven." 

6.  Comparisons^  to  he  effective^  should  not  he  incumbered  with  auf 
extraneous  circumstances.  Milton,  therefore,  made  a  mistake 
when,  in  his  comparison  of  the  shield  of  Satan  to  the  orb  of  the 
moon,  he  introduces  the  discovery  of  the  telescope,  and  all  the 
wonders  resulting  from  that  discovery.  The  occasion  did  not  re- 
q  lire  or  justify  the  introduction  of  these  extraneous  images. 

In  drav^ing  analogies  from  things  which  appear  to  have  nothing 
in  common,  no  writers  surpass  Lord  Bacon,  Oowley,  and  the  aU' 
lb  or  of  Hudibras 


THE   METAPHOR.  243 


LESSON    XGVIII. 

THE   METAPHOR. 

The  metaphor  is  an  abridged  comparison  ;  a  comparison 
not  formally  stated,  in  which  we  predicate  of  the  figurative 
object  effects  that  are  produced  by  the  real  object  denoted 
by  the  phrase  in  its  literal  sense.  In  other  words,  the  met- 
aphor indicates  the  resemblance  of  two  objects,  by  apply- 
ing the  name,  attribute,  or  act  of  one  directly  to  the 
other;  as, 

*'  He  shall  be  a  tree  planted  by  the  rivers  of  water."  When  I  say  of  any 
man,  "He  is  to  the  state  like  a  pillar  which  supports  an  edifice,"  I  use  a 
simile ;  when  I  say,  "  He  is  the  pillar  of  the  state,"  I  employ  a  metaphor. 

In  plain  language  I  may  say,  "  Thy  word  enlightens  and  guides 
me;"  in  the  use  of  metaphor,  "  Thy  word  is  a  lamp  to  ray  feet." 
Ossian,  in  addressing  a  hero,  uses  a  beautiful  metaphor:  "In 
peace,  th<  a  art  the  gale  of  spring;  in  v/ar,  the  mountain-storm." 

Rules  for  the  Metaphor. 

1.  It  should  be  adapted  to  the  nature  of  the  subject^  and  the 
character  of  the  style  which  it  is  intended  to  illustrate^  or  to  em- 
hellish :  neither  too  serious,  nor  too  gay ;  neither  too  elevated,  nor 
too  low. 

2.  Unless  the  design  is  to  degrade  or  malce  ridiculous^  it  should 
not  he  drawn  from  such  objects  as  raise  in  the  mind  low  or  disa- 
greeable ideas. 

3.  The  resemblance  should  be  evident  and  natural;  the  meta- 
phor should  not  be  far  fetched^  nor  difficult  to  understand.  Hence, 
all  technical  phrases,  and  allusions  to  the  more  abstruse  branches 
of  art  and  science,  which  are  not  generally  familiar,  should  not  be 
used.  The  metaphor,  which  is  designed  to  illustrate,  should  not 
render  the  thought  obscure  or  perplexed.  Harsh,  unnatural,  oi 
obscure  metaphors,  arc  soTnetim^s  qualified  by  the  ungainly  addi 


244       -    RULES  FOR  THE  METAPHOR. 

turn  of  the  phrase,  as  it  were.    When  metaphors  reqaire  such  an 
apology,  it  would  be  better  to  omit  them. 

To  say  of  gaming,  that  it  has  been  the  gulf  of  many  a  man's  fortune,  is 
clear  and  significant,  because  every  one  knows  that  things  may  be  swal- 
lowed up  and  lost  in  it ;  but  to  say  that  gaming  has  been  the  Gharyhdis  or 
the  Scylla  of  many  a  man's  fortune,  would  not  be  understood  by  rnulti- 
tudes.  * 

4.  Metaphorical  and  plain  language  sTiould  not  he  intermixed 
in  the  same  period  or  description.^  thus  distracting  the  mind  by 
the  association  of  incongruous  ideas,  or  by  multiplied  images. 
Examples : 

"  Now  from  my  fond  embrace  by  tempests  torn, 
Our  other  column  of  the  State  is  borne, — 
Nor  took  a  kind  adieu,  nor  sought  consent." 

Here  acts  are  attributed  to  a  column,  of  which  it  is  incapable. 

Flame  is  a  figurative  expression  for  the  passion  of  love,  but  to 
say  of  a  lover  that  he  whispered  his  flame  into  the  ear  of  his  mis- 
tress, would  be  faulty  language,  for  it  is  not  the  property  oi  flame 
to  be  blown  into  the  ear.,  nor  of  a  whisper  to  convey  flame. 

Ossian,  at  first,  says,  with  accuracy  and  beauty :  "  Trotheel 
went  forth  with  the  stream  of  his  people,  but  they  met  a  rock ; 
for  Fingal  stood  unmoved ;  broken,  they  rolled  back  from  his 
eide."  But  he  then  unhappily  mixes  literal  language  with  the 
metaphorical,  and  confuses  the- picture;  "Nor  did  they  roll  in 
safety ;  the  spear  of  the  hing  pursued  their  flights  At  first  they 
are  presented  as  the  waves  of  a  stream  rolling  onward,  and  in  the 
next  instant  as  men  that  may  be  pursued  and  wounded  with  a 
spear. 

5.  Two  different  metaphors  should  not  meet  on  one  object;  this 
is  called  a  mixed  metaphor.  All  metaphorical  combinations  that 
do  not  coalesce  or  group  well  together,  make  a  ridiculous  image 
before  the  mind;  as  in  the  phrases  and  sentences,  "To  take 
arms  against  a  sea  of  troubles ;"  "  To  extinguish  the  seeds  of 
pride ;"  "  Women  were  not  formed  to  set  an  edge  on  the  minds 
of  men,  and  blow  up  in  them  those  passions  which  are  apt  to  rise 
(if  their  own  accord." 

"I  bridle  in  my  struggling  muse  with  pain, 
Tha   longs  to  launch  into  a  bolder  strain." 


THE   METAPHOR.  245 

Here  tlie  muse  is  presented  tinder  the  incongruous  images  f>f  a 

horse  and  of  a  ship. 

Errors  of  this  kind  may  easily  be  avoided  by  imagining  the 
metaphor  represented  in  a  painting.  This  would  make  plain  all 
incongruities. 

6.  Avoid  multiplying  metaphors  on  the  same  subject^  or  in  the 
same  description^  producing  confusion  similar  to  that  arising  from 
the  mixed  metaphor. 

Dean  Swift  says :  *'  Those  whose  minds  are  dull  and  heavy,  dc  not 
easily  penetrate  into  the  folds  and  intricacies  of  an  affair,  and  therefore 
can  only  scum  off  what  they  find  at  the  top."  Here  is  confusion  indeed. 
The  affair  is  presented  under  the  image  of  a  bale  of  cloth,  and  also  under 
that  of  a  boiling  and  impure  Uquid.  It  cannot  be  both.  It  might  I  ave 
been  presented  under  the  one  or  the  other,  without  objection. 

A  metaphor  should  not  be  spun  out,  extended,  or  continued 
too  long.  It  thus  becomes  tiresome,  and  requires  too  much  effort 
to  trace  the  resemblance.  Cowley,  Shaftesbury,  and  Young  err 
greatly  in  this  particular.  Thus  Dr.  Young,  speaking  of  old  age, 
says  it  should 

"  Walk  thoughtful  on  the  silent  shore 
Of  that  vast  ocean  it  must  sail  so  soon, 
And  put  good  works  on  board,  and  wait  the  wind 
That  shortly  blows  us  into  worlds  unknown." 

Another  instance  of  the  same  kind  is  taken  from  the  writings  of  Eev. 
James  Hervey :  "  The  religious  seem  to  lie  in  the  bosom  of  the  earth,  as  a 
wary  pilot  in  some  well-sheltered  bark.  Here  they  enjoy  safe  anchorage, 
are  in  no  danger  of  foundering  among  the  seas  of  prevailing  iniquity,  or  of 
being  shipwrecked  on  the  rocks  of  temptation.  But  ere  long  we  shall  be- 
hold them  shifting  their  flag  of  hope,"  &c. 

7.  The  ahuse  of  metaphor,  or  a  metaphor  carried  to  excess,  in 
expressing  extravagance  of  emotion,  is  called  Catachresis ;  e.  g,^ 

'*  This  moment  I  could  scatter 
Kingdoms  like  half-pence;     I  am  drunk  with  joy.  #i 

This  is  a  royal  hour— the  top  of  life.  A.  Smith, 

Another  example  of  the  abuse  of  metaphor,  is  when  the  young 
of  beasts  are  called  "  their  sons  and  daughters ;"  or  when  the  in- 
stinctive economy  of  bees  is  called  their  "government;"  when 
tiie  goat  is  called  "  the  husband  of  the  flock ;"  when  wine  is 
called  "the  1  lool  of  the  grape.'' 


246  THE   ALLEGLRY. 

8.  Similar  to  metaphor  is  allusion^  which  produces  a  pleasing 
effect  when  understood — from  the  associations  and  reminiscences 
which  it  awakens. 

The  allusion  may  be  derived  from  the  Scriptures,  from  the  an- 
cient and  modern  classics,  from  the  sciences,  and  from  the  arts. 


LESSON    XCIX. 

THE   ALLEGORY. 

In  the  Allegory  we  rehearse  a  story  or  description  under 
which  a  meaning  is  veiled  different  from  that  which  ap- 
pears on  the  surface.  The  analogy  is  designed  to  be  so 
obvious,  that  the  application  can  easily  be  made,  and 
practical  conclusions  correctly  drawn.  It  is  employed 
when  it  is  desired  to  convey  information,  but  not  in  direct 
and  plain  terms ;  or  when  there  is  an  aim  to  interest  the 
imagination;  or  to  get  unwelcome  truth  before  the  un- 
derstanding and  conscience  of  those  who  are  prejudiced 
against  it. 

Horace,  in  his  14th  Ode,  Book  I.,  addresses  the  Roman  Com- 
monwealth as  a  ship  ;  represents  the  civil  wars  as  a  storm  at  sea; 
and  the  return  of  tranquillity,  by  a  safe  harbor. 

Sometimes  whole  poems  or  prose  treatises  are  allegorical ;  as 
Spenser's  ^' Faery  Queen,"  Swift's  "  Tale  of  a  Tub,"  ^'Gulliver's 
Travels,"  Butler's  "  Hudibras,"  and  Bunyan's  "  Pilgrim's  Prog- 
ress ;"  the  figures,  personages,  and  scenes  represented  in  them  be- 
ing, entirely  imaginary,  though  the  moral  and  the  satire  contained 
in  them  apply  to  real  life. 

The  nature  of  allegory  will  be  best  understood  by  introducing 
jome  examples.  Take  first  that  beautiful  allegorical  representa- 
tion of  the  Jewish  people  which  you  will  find  in  tfhe  80th  Psalm : 

"  Thou  hast  brought  a  vine  out  of  Egypt ;  .thou  hast  cast  out  the  heathen 

/Mtl  planted  it.    Thou  preparedst  room  before  it,  and  didst  cause  it  to  take 

aep  root,  and  it  filled  the  land.     The  hills  were  covered  witli  the  shadow 


THE   ALLEGORY.  247 

of  It,  and  the  boughs  thereof  were  like  the  goodly  cedars.  She  sent  out 
her  boughs  unto  the  sea,  and  her  branches  unto  the  river.  Why  hast  thou 
then  broken  down  her  hedges,  so  that  all  they  which  pass  by  the  way  do 
pluck  her?  The  boar  out  of  the  wood  doth  waste  it,  and  the  wild  beast  of 
the  field  doth  devour  it.  Return,  we  beseech  thee,  O  God  of  hosts ;  look 
down  from  heaven,  and  beliold  and  visit  this  vine,  and  the  vineyard  which 
tliy  right  hand  hath  planted,  and  the  branch  that  thou  madest  strong  for 
thyself." 

From  this  instance,  it  will  be  noticed  that  no  resemblance  is 
expressly  stated  to  exist  between  this  vine  and  the  Jewish  people, 
and  yet  there  is  an  obvions  resemblance.  It  is  not  said  that  the 
Jewish  people  is  a  vine,  nor  that  it  is  like  a  vine  thus  planted,  and 
defended,  and  assailed.  We  are  left  to  discover  for  ourselves  the 
application,  the  analogy. 

It  is  also  to  be  observed  that  a  minute  resemblance  in  every 
circumstance  or  particular  is  not  to  be  expected  or  looked  for. 
If  tlie  general  purpose  of  the  Allegory  is  discerned,  that  is  suffi- 
cient. It  is  also  apparent  that  the  Allegory  is  neither  a  Metaphor 
nor  a  Comparison,  but  a  story  complete  in  itself,  yet  furnishing  a 
figurative  representation  of  certain  persons,  facts,  or  events. 

Take,  as  another  beautiful  instance  of  Allegory,  that  which 
Nathan,  the  Hebrew  prophet,  delivered  to  King  David  : 

"  There  were  two  men  in  one  city  :  the  one  rich,  the  other  poor.  The 
rich  man  had  exceeding  many  flocks  and  herds  ;  but  the  poor  man  had 
nothing  save  one  little  ewe-lamb,  which  he  had  bought  and  nourished  up, 
and  it  grew  up  togetlier  with  him  and  with  his  children;  it  did  eat  of  his 
own  meat,  and  drank  of  his  own  cup,  and  lay  in  his  bosom,  and  was  unto 
him  as  a  daughter.  And  there  came  a  traveller  unto  the  rich  man,  and  he 
spared  to  take  of  his  own  flock  and  of  his  own  herd,  to  dress  for  the  way- 
faring man  that  was  come  unto  him ;  but  took  the  poor  man's  lamb,  and 
dressed  it  for  the  man  that  was  come  to  him." 

The  purpose  and  the  application  of  this  inimitable  allegory,  as 
conveyed  by  the  prophet,  may  be  read  in  the  twelfth  chapter  of 
Second  Samuel. 

In  Prior's  "  Henry  and  Emma,"  we  have  an  allegorical  descrip- 
tion, admirably  sustained  and  distinct,  of  Emma's  constancy  in  the 
voyage  of  life : 

"  Did  I  but  purpose  to  embark  with  thee 
On  the  smooth  surface  of  a  summer's  sea, 
While  gentle  zephyrs  play  in  prosperous  gales, 
And  Fortune's  favor  fills  the  swelling  sa^ls ; 


248  THE   ALLEGORY. 

But  would  forsake  the  ship  and  make  the  shore, 
When  the  winds  whistle,  and  the  tempests  roar? 
No,  Henry,  no  1" 

Allegories  have  been  divided  iato  tliree  Mnds:  those  designed 
for  ornament ;  for  instruction  ;  and  for  both  of  these  purposes. 

Of  the  first  sort  is  Akenside's  allegory,  in  which  he  beautifully 
conveys  the  fact  that  cultivation  is  necessary  to  develop  and  ma^ 
tare  the  powers  of  the  human  mind,  and  render  them  beneficial  to 
society.  The  allegory,  it  will  be  observed,  contains  no  adventi- 
tious or  foreign  circumstance  to  impair  its  unity,  or  obscure  its 
beauty. 

"  In  vain 

Without  fair  Culture's  kind  parental  aid, 

Without  enlivening  suns  and  genial  showers, 

And  shelter  from  the  blast, — in  vain  we  hope 

The  tender  plant  should  raise  its  blooming  head, 

Or  yield  the  harvest  promised  in  its  spring. 

Nor  yet  will  every  soil  with  equal  stores 

Repay  the  tiller's  labor,  or  attend 

His  will  obsequious,  whether  to  produce 

The  olive  or  the  laurel."  ^ 

For  excellent  examples  of  the  moral  species  of  allegory,  de- 
signed principally  for  instruction,  the  student  is  referred  to  the 
Allegory  of  Prodicus^  in  Xenophon's  "Memorabilia,"  and  to  the 
Picture  of  Human  Life,  exhibited  in  the  Tablature  of  Cebes. 

The  power  of  the  Allegory  is  finely  shown  in  the  address  of 
Menenius  Agrippa,  reported  by  Livy  (Book  ii.,  32  ),  in  which  he 
thus  adroitly  seeks  to  reconcile  the  commons  to  the  patricians, 
between  whom,  at  that  time,  a  dangerous  contest  seemed  to  be 
imminent : 

"At  a  time  when  the  members  of  the  human  body  did  not,  as  at  present, 
all  unite  in  one  plan,  but  each  member  had  its  own  scheme,  and  its  own 
language  ;  the  other  parts  were  provoked  at  seeing  the  fruits  of  all  their 
care,  of  all  their  toil  and  service,  applied  to  the  use  of  the  stomach ; 
And  that  the  stomach  meanwhile  remained  at  its  ease,  and  did  nothing 
but  enjoy  the  pleasures  provided  for  it:  on  this  they  conspired  together, 
that  the  hand  should  not  bring  food  to  the  mouth,  nor  the  mouth  re- 
ceive it  if  offered,  nor  the  teeth  chew  it.  While  they  wished,  by  thesQ 
hugry  measures,  to  subdue  the  stomach  through  hunger,  the  members, 
und  the  whole  body,  were,  together  with  it,  reduced  to  the  las  stage  oi 
Jcoay :  from  thence  it  appeared  that  the  ofiice  of  the  stomach    tself  wai- 


THE    HYPERBOLF  249 

not  confined  to  a  slothful  indolence,  that  it  not  only  received  nourishment, 
but  supplied  it  to  the  others,  conveying  to  every  part  of  the  body,  that 
blood  on  which  depends  our  life  and  vigor,  by  distributing  it  equally 
through  the  veins,  after  having  brought  it  to  perfection  by  digestion  of  the 
food." 

For  additional  examples  of  admirably  sustained  allegories,  refer 
to  Addison's  "  Vision  of  Mirza,"  Goldsmith's  "Asem,  an  Eastern 
Tale,"  and  Dr.  Johnson's  "  Voyage  of  Life,"  Rambler,  No.  102, 
vol.  iii. 

The  principal  Rule  for  the  Allegory  is,  to  avoid  min 
gling  the  literal  mid  figurative  significations.  The  attri 
bates  of  the  primary  and  of  the  secondary  subject  musf 
not  be  interchanged.  The  difficulty  of  sustaining  a  long 
allegory  suggests  to  writers  of  moderate  ability  to  stud^ 
brevity. 


LESSON  G. 

HYPERBOLE. 


This  figure  is  the  product  of  imagination  and  passion, 
under  the  influence  of  which  we  are  prone  to  magnify  the 
good  qualities  of  objects  we  love,  and  to  diminish  or  de- 
grade the  qualities  of  objects  which  we  dislike  or  envy. 
Fear  of  an  enemy  tends  to  augment  our  conceptions  of  his 
size  and  prowess. 

The  scout  in  Ossian  thus  portrays  a  hostile  chief: 

*'  I  saw  their  chief,  tall  as  a  rock  of  ice;  his  spear,  the  blasted  fir;  his 
shield,  the  rising  moon ;  he  sat  on  the  shore,  like  a  cloud  of  mist  on  the 
hill." 

The  Hyperbole  (exaggeration),  therefore,  consists  in  represent- 
ing objects  either  greater  or  smaller,  better  or  worse,  than  they 
really  are;  and  this  is  done  by  applying  to  them  exaggerated 
epithets. 

Thus  the  Apostle  John  says  of  the  deeds  of  our  Saviour,  *'  If  they 
ehould  be  writton^  every  one  of  them,  I  suppose  that  even  the  world  itself 

11* 


250  THE   HYPERBOLE. 

could  not  contain  the  l/ooks  that  should  be  written."  So  the  promise  of 
an  increase  of  the  Hebrew  population  is  in  these  hyperbolic  or  exaggerated 
terms:  "  I  will  make  thy  seed  as  the  dust  of  the  earth;  so  that  if  a  man 
can  number  the  dust  of  the  earth,  then  shall  thy  seed  also  be  numbered.' 

Homer's  allegorical  description  of  Discord, 

"  Her  head  she  raised  to  heaven,  and  trod  on  earth;" 

and  Milton's  description, 

"  So  frown'd  the  mighty  combatants,  that  Hell 
Grew  darker  at  their  frown ;" 


and  Shakspeare's, 


-" tongue 


In  every  wound  of  Csesar,  that  should  move  the 
Stones  of  Rome  to  rise  and  mutiny ;" 

are  fine  examples  of  hyperbole. 

Rules  for  Hyperbole. — I.  They  should  not  he  over- 
strained and  labored. 

Dryden  unduly  compliments  Charles  II.  at  the  expense  of  the 
sun  himself: 

"  That  star  that  at  your  birth  shone  out  so  bright. 
It  stain'd  the  duller  sun's  meridian  light." 

Prior  supposes  the  fire  of  a  lady's  eyes  to  outshine  the  flames 
of  Rome,  when  lighted  up  by  Kero :  ^ 

*'  To  burning  Rome  when  frantic  Nero  play'd,  / 

Viewing  thy  face,  no  more  he  had  survey' d 
The  raging  flames,  but,  struck  with  strange  surprise, 
Confess' d  them  less  than  those  in  Anna's  eyes." 

Guarini  (in  Pastor  Fido)  represents  a  shepherd  as  addressing 
his  beloved  thus :  '^  If  I  had  as  many  tongues,  and  as  many  vrords 
as  there  are  stars  in  the  heavens,  and  grains  of  sand  on  the  shore, 
my  tongues  would  be  tired,  and  my  words  would  be  exhausted, 
betbre  I  could  do  justice  to  your  immense  merit," 

Rule  II. — They  should  seldom  he  used  except  under  the 
influence  of  emotion^  and  when  the  mind  of  the  reader  has 
been  excited  and  thus  prepared  to  relish  them. 

Rule  III. — They  should  be  expressed  in  few  words. 


PERSONIFICATION.  251 


LESSON  CI. 

PERSONIFICATION. 

This  is  a  figure  which  imparts  to  a  compofeition  great 
animation  and  beauty,  by  giving  more  distinct  conceptions 
of  an  object  to  the  mind.  It  personifies  (regards,  and 
speaks  of,  as  persons)  inanimate  or  irrational  objects,  and 
abstract  qualities.  It  endows  them  with  life,  speech,  feel- 
ing, and  activity : 

"  The  sea  saw  thoe  and  fled,'-  &c. ;  *'  What  aileth  thee,  0  thou  sea,  that 
thou  fleddest,"  &c. 

This  figure  is  profusely  employed  in  Thomson's  Seasons  and  in 
Virgil's  Georgics ;  so  that  it  has  been  said,  that  if  you  divest  them 
of  this  sprightly  ornament,  you  reduce  two  of  the  most  beautiful 
didactic  poems  the  world  ever  saw  into  dry  and  uninteresting 
details  of  natural  history. 

All  the  various  passions  of  the  soul  prompt  to  the  use  of  this 
lively  figure. 

Eve,  just  before  she  was  compelled  to  leave  Paradise,  feelingly 
exclaims : 

"  Oh,  unexpected  stroke,  worse  than  death : 
Must  I  thus  leave  thee,  Paradise  ?  thus  leave 

Thee,  native  soil,  these  happ>  walks  and  shades  I 
******* 

*  *  *  O  Flowers  I 

That  never  will  in  other  climate  grow, 

My  early  visitation,  and  my  last 

At  even,  which  I  bred  up  with  tender  nand, 

Prom  your  first  opening  buds,  and  gave  you  names  I'* 

So  on  the  occasion  of  Eve's  eating  the  forbidden  fruit,  external 
Nature  is  represented  as  moved  to  grief  and  consternation : 

"  Nature  from  her  seat. 
Sighing  through  all  her  works,  gave  signs  of  woo 
That  all  was  lost." 

"  Sky  lower'd,  and  muttering  thunder,  some  sad  drops 
Wept,  at  completing  of  the  mortal  sin." 


252  PERSONIFICATION. 

At  the  preTious  period  of  the  happy  nuptials  of  the  innocent 
pair, 

"  All  heaven, 
And  happy  constellations,  on  that  hour 
Shed  their  selectest  influence  ;  the  earth 
Gave  signs  of  gratulation." 

Satan,  in  "  Paradise  Lost,"  thus  addresses  the  sun : 

"  0  Sun  !  to  tell  thee  how  I  hate  thy  beamSj 
That  bring  to  my  remembrance  from  what  state 
I  fell !" 

Adam,  impatient  to  knovr  his  origin,  personifies  and  thus  ad- 
dresses the  prominent  natural  objects  around  him : 

"  Thou  Sun,  said  I,  fair  light  1 
And  thou,  enlightcn'd  Earth,  so  fresh  and  gay  I 
Ye  hills  and  dales,  ye  rivers,  woods,  and  plains, 
And  ye  that  live  and  move,  fair  creatures,  tell, 
Tell,  if  you  saw,  how  came  I  thus,  how  here  ?" 

King  Lear,  in  extreme  distress,  personifies  the  elements,  and 
charges  them  with  aiding  his  daughters  to  effect  his  ruin: 

"  I  tax  not  you,  ye  elements,  with  unkindness ; 
I  never  gave  you  kingdoms,  call'd  you  children ; 
You  owe  me  no  subscription ;  then  let  fall 
Your  horrible  displeasure.    Here  I  stand  your  slave ; 
A  poor,  infirm,  weak,  \nd  despised  old  man  I 
But  yet  I  call  you  servile  ministers. 
That  have,  with  two  pernicious  daughters,  join'd 
Your  high  engender'd  battles  'gainst  a  head 
So  old  and  white  as  this." 

The  personifications  of  Night  (in  the  Complaint  of  Young 
Book  L  lS-25);  of  the  Nature  and  Offices  of  Law  (in  Hooker's 
Ecclesiastical  Polity) ;  of  Natural  Religion  (in  Bishop  Sherlock's 
comparison  of  our  Saviour  with  Mohammed),  arfi  deserving  ol 
admiration. 

The  most  animated  personification  of  abstract  ideas  is  found  in 
Collins'  ode  on  the  Passions.  Milton's  '^ coy  submission,"  "proud 
humility,"  "  astonished  thought ;"  Ossian's  ''joy  of  grief;"  the  per- 
sonifying style  of  Johnson,  "indolence  reposes,"  instead  of  "the 
indolent  man  reposes;"  "criticism  pronounces,"  instead  of  "the 
critics  pronounce,"  are  clear  instances  of  personification. 


APOSTROPHE.  253 

Errors  to  he  avoided:  (1.)  Avoid  the  introduction  of 
fantastic  and  trifling  circumstances, 

(2.)  Personifications  are  not  to  he  employed  when  the 
subject  is  destitute  of  dignity.  An  address  to  the  seyeral 
parts  of  one's  body  as  if  they  were  animated,  is  not  suita- 
ble to  the  dignity  of  passion.  Hence  the  following  lines 
are  exceptionable,  in  Pope's  beautiful  poem  of  "  Eloise  to 
Abelard:" 

"  Dear,  fatal  name !  rest  ever  unreveal'd, 

*  *  -Sf  *  * 

Hide  it  my  heart,  *  *  •* 

Oh !  write  it  not,  my  hand  ! — his  name  appears 
Already  written  :— blot  it  out,  my  tears  !  " 

In  prose  compositions,  the  figure  requires  to  be  used  with 
greater  moderation  and  delicacy  than  in  poetry. 


LESSON    CII. 

APOSTKOPHE. 

This  is  a  figure  in  which  we  address  the  alsent  or  dead, 
as  if  present  or  alive,  and  the  inanimate  as  if  living;  or  in 
which  we  turn  from  the  logical  order  of  thought,  or  regular 
course  of  our  subject,  to  address  the  person  or  thing 
spoken  of. 

"  O  gentle  sleep, 
Nature's  soft  nurse,  how  liave  I  frighted  thee, 
That  thou  no  more  wilt  weigh  my  eyelids  down, 
And  steep  my  senses  in  forgetfulness  ?  "  Shakspeare, 

Of  the  apostrophe  there  are  two  classes — the  protracted 
and  picturesque,  the  product  of  imagination ;  and  the  more 
brief  and  suggestive,  which  originates  in  the  violence  of 
passion. 

Ossian's  address  to  the  Moon  is  regarded  as  one  of  the  most 
8T)lendid  apostrophes  in  any  language  : 


254  APOSTROPHE. 

^'  Daughter  of  heaven,  fair  art  thou  I  The  silence  of  tliy  face  is  pleasant 
Thou  comest  forth  in  loveliness.  The  stars  attend  thy  blue  steps  in  the 
east.  The  clouds  rejoice  in  thy  presence,  O  Moon  1  and  brighten  theii 
dark-brown  sides.  Who  is  like  thee  in  heaven,  daughter  of  the  night  1 
The  stars  are  ashamed  in  thy  presence,  and  turn  aside  their  sparkling  eyes. 
Whither  dost  thou  retire  from  thy  course,  when  the  darkness  of  thy  coun- 
tenance grows  ?  Hast  thou  thy  hall,  like  Ossian?  Dwellest  thou  in  the 
shadow  of  grief  ?  Have  thy  sisters  fallen  from  heaven?  and  are  they  whrt 
rejoiced  with  thee  at  night  no  more?  Yes,  they  have  fallen,  fair  light!  and 
often  dost  thou  retire  to  mourn.  But  thou  thyself  shalt  one  night  fail,  and 
leave  thy  blue  path  in  heaven.  The  stars  will  then  lift  their  heads ;  they 
who  in  thy  presence  were  astonished  will  rejoice." 

In  the  tragedy  of  Douglass,  Lady  Randolph  thus  bewails  the 
loss  of  her  son : 

"  My  murder' d  child  !  had  thy  fond  mother  fear'd 
The  loss  of  thee,  she  had  loud  fame  defied, 
Despised  her  ftither's  rage,  her  father's  grief, 
And  wander' d  with  thee  through  the  scorning  world." 

Quinctilian  also  thus  laments  the  untimely  death  of  a  favorite 
son: 

"  Hast  thou  left  me,  ray  son,  a  childless  father,  reserved  to  drag  on  a 
wretched  life  ?  Thou,  who  wast  so  lately,  by  consular  adoption,  entitled 
to  succeed  to  all  thy  father's  honors  ?  Thou,  whom  a  prastor,  thy  uncle, 
had  marked  out  for  his  son-in-law  ?  Thou,  who  wouldst  also  have  restored 
eloquence  to  all  her  native  glories  ?  Thou  art  gone,  while  I  am  reserved 
to  suffer  grief  and  affliction." 

The  passionate  apostrophe  of  the  bereaved  and  eloquent  He- 
brew monarch,  over  the  corpse  of  his  beloved  yet  unnatural  son 
Absalom,  is  familiar  to  all.  The  Scriptures  abound  in  beautiful 
apostrophes ;  as  in  the  fourteenth  chapter  of  Isaiah,  where  the  fall 
of  the  Babylonish  king  is  described ;  or  where  the  prophet  Jere- 
miah exclaimtf,  "O  thou  sword  of  the  Lord?  how  long  will  it  be 
ere  thou  be  quiet?  put  thyself  up  into  the  scabbard,  rest  and  be 
still;"  or  in  the  pathetic  lamentation  of  David  over  Saul  and 
Jonathan : 

**  Ye  mountains  of  Gilboa,  no  dew,  neither  rain  be  upon  you,  nor  fields 
of  oft'erings  !  How  are  the  mighty  fallen  in  the  midst  of  the  battle !  0 
Jonathan,  thou  wast  slain  in  thine  high  places  I  I  am  distressed  for  thee, 
my  brother  Jonathan  ;  very  pleasant  hast  thou  been  unto  me ;  thy  love  to 
nae  waa  wonderful,  passing  the  love  of  women  !" 

Adam's  Morning  Hymn  in  Paradise  "is  a  chain  of  the  njost 


APOSTROPHE. 


255 


beautiful  apostrophes;"  so  his  soliloquy  on  the  miserable  con- 
dition to  which  sin  had  reduced  him  embodies  the  same  figuie: 

"  O  woods,  0  fountains, 
With  other  echoes  late  I  taught  your  shades 
To  answer  and  resound  for  other  song." 

Rules  for  the  apostrophe. — First,  avoid  the  profuse 
and  affected  use  of  ornaments^  for  these  are  the  product  of 
fancy,  not  of  passion.  Secondly,  let  not  the  apostrophe  be 
carried  to  an  undue  length.  The  language  of  passion  is 
concise  and  abrupt ;  it  passes  suddenly  from  one  object  to 
another.  Thirdly,  never  employ  it  unless  under  the  influr- 
ence  of  sU  -mg  emotion. 

Oratory,  m  some  of  its  forms,  is  a  fine  field  for  the  use  of  apos- 
trophe. Dc'mosthenes  and  Cicero  abound  in  it.  So  have  modern 
orators,  bovh  British  and  American,  of  which  it  would  be  easy  to 
produce  mx  ay  brilliant  and  admirable  specimens. 

Exercise. 

It  womld  be  useful  to  the  pupil  or  reader,  to  examine 
tsome  book  of  selections  in  prose  and  verse,  for  the  purpose 
ot  discerning  and  pointing  out  the  various  rhetorical  figures 
lu^ttted  upt)n  in  this,  in  former,  and  in  succeeding  lessons. 


LESSON    CIII. 

THE  VISION,  OR   HYPOTYPOSIS. 

This  is  a  figure  suitable  only  in  animated  compositions, 
\^  here,  in  relating  transactions  past,  or  future,  or  in  writing 
of  things  distant  or  unseen,  we  use  the  present  tense  of  the 
verb,  and  describe  them  as  if  they  were  before  our  eyes  at 
the  time  of  writing. 


256  VISION   OR   HTPOTYPOSTS. 

Thus  Quinctinan,  speaking  of  &  town  that  had  been  sacked, 
represents  the  fact  in  the  following  picturesque  manner : 

*'  We  behold  houses  and  temples  wrapt  in  flames  ;  we  hear  the  crash  of 
I  oofs  falling  in,  and  one  general  uproar  proceeding  from  a  thousand  differ- 
ent voices  ;  we  see  some  flying  they  know  not  whither,  others  hanging 
over  the  last  embraces  of  their  wives  and  friends  ;  we  see  the  mother  tear- 
ing from  the  ruffian's  grasp  her  helpless  babe,  and  the  victors  cutting  each  , 
other's  throats  wherever  the  phinder  is  most  inviting."  A 

The  Ingoldsby  Legends^  describing  humorously  the  heroic  ad- 
ventures of  the  fashionable  Lord  Tomnoddy  and  his  tiger  Tom, 
and  their  perilous  journey  to  the  Old  Bailey,  ''  to  do  what  was  fit 
for  a  nobleman  to  do" — get  drunk  in  company  with  his  aristo- 
cratic friends, 

"  Captain  McFuse, 
Lieutenant  Freegoose, 
And  Corny  Jenks  of  the  Blues," 

while  they  were  witnessing  a  criminal  dangling  in  his  shoes  from 
the  gallows  at  the  end  of  a  halter,  furnish  a  touching  specimen  of 
the  figure  we  are  illustrating : 

"  And  hark  I  a  sound  comes  big  with  fate, 
The  clock  from  St.  Sepulchre's  towers  strikes  eight  I 
List  to  that  funereal  bell. 
It  is  tolling,  alas  !  a  living  man's  knell  I 
And  see  I  from  forth  that  opening  door 
They  come— he  steps  that  threshold  o'er 
Who  never  shall  tread  upon  threshold  more. 
God !  'tis  a  fearsome  thing  to  see 
That  pale,  wan  man's  mute  agony ; 
The  glare  of  that  wild,  despairing  eye, 
Now  bent  on  the  crowd,  now  turn'd  to  the  sky, 
As  though  'twere  scanning,  in  doubt  and  in  fear, 
The  path  of  the  spirit's  unknown  career ; 
Those  pinion'd  arms,  those  hands  that  ne'er 
Shall  be  lifted  again, — not  e'en  prayer  ; 
That  heaving  chest ! — Enough — 'tis  done  I 
The  bolt  has  fallen  !     The  spirit  has  sjono — 
For  weal  or  for  woe  is  known  but  to   )no ' 
Oh  I  'twas  a  fearsome  sight  I — Ah  me  I 
A  deed  to  shudder  at, — not  to  see." 


THE   METONYMY.  257 

LESSON  CIV. 

THE   METONYMY. 

Metonymy  (change  of  name)  substitutes  the  name  of  one 
object  for  that  of  another,  which  is  related  to  it,  either  by 
some  degree  of  mutual  dependence,  or  is  otherwise  so  con- 
nected with  it  as  to  be  capable  of  suggesting  it:  thus,  it 
uses  the  cause  for  the  effect,  or  the  effect  for  the  cause ; 
the  attribute  for  the  subject,  or  the  subject  for  the  attri- 
bute ;  the  antecedent  for  the  consequent,  or  the  consequent 
for  the  antecedent,  &c, 

1.  The  cause  for  the  effect. 

Examples. — "  I  know  his  hand,^''  for  hand-writing;  "  streaming  grief ^"^ 
for  tears  ;  "  the  light  shines,"  instead  of  "  the  sun  shines  ;"  *'  he  was  over- 
taken by  night ^"^  instead  of  "  by  darhness  ;"  "  he  loves  his  hottle^'*''  instead 
of  "  he  is  a  drunJcard  f  "  they  read  the  poets^'*  i.  e.,  "  their  worhs ;"  "  it  is 
to  be  found  in  Horace^  Virgil,"  &c.,  that  is,  "  in  the  writings  of  Horace ^^"^  &c. 

The  names  of  heathen  deities  are  substituted  for  what  they  preside  ov^r ; 
thus,  Mars^  by  a  metonymy,  is  used  for  war;  Neptune^  for  the  sea  ;  Bacchus, 
for  wine  ;  Venus,  for  love  ;  Pallas,  for  wisdom. 

2.  The  effect  is  put  for  the  cause  ;  or,  the  'properties  of  the  effect 
are  attributed  to  the  cause. 

Thus,  *'  He  lives  by  the  sweat  of  his  brow ;"  that  is,  by  his  lahor,  of  which 
sweat  is  the  effect ;  victory  is  said  to  be  insolent ;  death,  to  be  pale  ;  youth, 
to  be  gay  ;  passion,  blind;  anger,  hasty ;  cuHosity,  impertinent;  win^^  jo- 
vial; drink,  giddy  ;  night,  drowsy,  &c.  "  There  is  death  in  the  pot,"  is  put 
for  "  there  is  some  deadly  thing,  some  death- causing  thing,  in  the  pot ;" 
'"''cold  Death;"  that  is.  Death  that  makes  cold. 

"  And  the  merry  bells  (bells  that  make  merry)  ring  round." 

D  Allegro. 

3.  The  suhjectfor  the  attribute  or  adjunct. 

Youth  and  beauty  are  put  for  those  who  are  tJie  subjects  of  yout?  and 
beauty;  that  is,  for  the  young  and  the  beautiful. 

4.  The  attribute,  or  adjunct,  for  the  subject. 

Thus,  in  the  exj  ressions,  "  \hQ  insolence  of  the  agt  •"  i.  e.,  of  the  men  of 


258  THE  METONYMY. 

the  age :  "on  this  side  modesty  is  engaged,  on  that  impudence,^*  &q.  ;  i.  e., 
modest  men,  &c. :  "  Ye  devour  XhQ  families  of  widows ;"  i.  e.,  their  means 
of  subsistence. 

By  the  same  figure  we  say  of  a  book,  "it  is  the  production  ol 
an  eminent ^«7i ;"  that  the  word  "mitre"  is  used  for  priesthood; 
"  sword"  for  the  military  profession,  or  military  violence ;  "  the 
gown"  for  theology,  law,  or  physic ;  ''  chair"  for  the  professor ; 
"the  purple"  for  imperial  authority;  "the  throne,"  or  "crown," 
for  the  kingly  office ;  "  the  papal  chair"  for  papal  authority. 

Thus,  also,  horses  are  termed  lays^  g'^ciys^  chestnuts^  &c. ; — the 
names  of  Burgundy,  Champagne,  Madeira,  &c.,  are  applied  to  the 
wines  of  those  countries ; — "  the  turf,"  or  "the  course"  is  put  for 
the  race-ground; — "heat"  for  a  match; — "the  glow-worm's 
lamp,"  for  light ; — "  boots"  for  one  who  cleans  boots  ; — "  a  toast" 
for  one  who  is  the  subject  of  it ; — "  he  is  an  excellent  whip,"  that 
is,  a  skilful  driver. 

"The  skirts  of  a  wood,"  "  the  brow  of  a  hill,"  "the  arm  of  a  tree,"  or 
"  of  the  sea,"  "the  wing  of  an  army,"  "the  hand  of  time,"  "  the  frog  of  a 
horse's  foot,"  "  the  finger-post,"  "  an  elbow-chair,"  are  expressions  be- 
longing to  the  figure  of  metonymy;  so  are  Milton's  epithets,  "religious 
light,"  "  wearied  wing,"  "  adventurous  song  ;"  and  Shakspeare's  "  coward 
Bwords,"  " fearful  hollows ;"  and  Gray's  "moping  melancholy,"  "pining 
atrophy,"  and  "  moonstruck  madness." 

5.  The  antecedent  for  the  consequent. 

As,  "they  lived,"  instead  of,  they  are  now  dead  ;  "he  once  was,"  in- 
stead of,  he  is  no  more. 

6.  The  consequent  for  the  antecedent. 

As,  "  he  is  buried,"  for  he  is  dead ;  "  he  is  hastening  to  the  grave,"  for 
"to  death." 

7.  The  inventor  is  taken  for  the  thing  indented  ;  thus, 

"  Blanket,"  from  Blanket;  "phaeton,"  from  Phaeton,  of  mythologic  no- 
toriety. 

8.  The  container  is  substituted  for  the  contents^  or  thing  con- 
tained; as, 

Grove^  for  the  "  birds  contaimd  in  it,^^  in  the  phrase,  "  vocal  grove ;" 
mountains,  for  the  sheep  feeding  on  them,  as,  "  the  Ueatiiig  mountains  ;"  the 
kettU,  for  the  water  contained  in  it,  as,  "the  kettle  boils  ;"  the  cup^  for  the 
wine  therein,  as,  "  drink  of  this  cup." 


THE   SYNECDOCHE. 


259 


9.  The  sustainerfor  the  thing  sustained. 

Altar  is  put  for  the  sacrifice  laid  on  it ;  field^  for  the  battle  upon  it,  as, 
well-fought ^e^;  "the  mace  (magistrate)  comes." 

10.  Materials  for  the  things  made  out  of  them  ;  as, 
Hemp  for  rope  ;  cold  steel  for  suord;  lead  for  bullet, 

11.  TTie  thing  signified  for  the  sign  ;  as, 

When  pointing  to  a  portrait,  we  say,  "  That  is  Webster ^^    or  "  Glay^''  &a 


LESSON    CV. 

THE    SYNECDOCHE    (oR   COMPREHENSION). 

This  is  a  form  of  speech,  wherein  something  more  or 
something  less  is  substituted  for  the  precise  object  meant ; 
as  when  the  whole  is  put  for  a  part,  or  a  part  for  the 
whole  ;  a  genus  for  a  species,  or  a  species  for  a  genus ;  the 
singular  for  the  plural,  or  the  plural  for  the  singular,  &c. 

1 .  The  whole  for  a  fart, 

"  The  world  considers  him  a  man  of  talent,"  i.  e  ,  that  part  of  mankind 
who  knew  him  ;  "  It  is  written  in  the  prophets^''''  i.  e.,  in  the  book  of  some 
one  of  the  prophets ;  *'  There  lies  Washington^''''  i.  e.,  the  body  of  Washing- 
ton ;  "  They  have  taken  away  my  Lord^''  i.  e.,  his  body. 

2.  A  part  for  the  whole. 

"  Give  us  this  day  our  daily  bread^  i.  e.,  various  kinds  of  food  necessary 
for  the  support  of  life ;  "  mortals,"  or  "  souls,"  are  put  for  men  ;  "  sail," 
for  the  entire  ship ;  "  head,"  for  person ;  "  waves,"  for  the  sea ;  "  a  good 
sow?,"  "a  merry  *ot^?,"  for  a  good  and  a  merry  person ;  "  the  keys  of  the 
fort  were  given  up,"  i.  e.,  ih^  fort  was  given  up  ;  "the  Lord  Chancellor 
resigned  the  #€aZ*,"  i.  e.,  every  thing  connected  with  the  office  of  Chan- 
cellor. 

3.  The  genus  for  a  species. 

As  when  we  call  a  dull  man  a  stupid  animal. 

4.  A  species  for  the  genus. 

We  thus  speak  of  a  "garrison  put  to  the  sword,^^  i.  e.,  killed  by  all  the 
various  species  of  weapons  employed  ;  or  we  say  a  man  may  get  his  bread 


260  ANTO^OMASTA. 

by  industry,  that  is,  get  the  necessaries  of  life,  bread  being  only  one  spec  m 
of  this  genus. 

5.  The  singular  number  used  for  the  plural;  or,  the  plural  for 
the  singular. 

"  Man  that  is  born  of  woman,"  i.  e.,  men  that  are  bo.-n  of  women  ;  "  The 
thieves  that  were  crucified  with  him  upbraided  him,"  i.  e.,  f>neofth<i  thieves 
upbraided  him. 

Sometimes  a  collective  word,  by  this  figure,  expresses  multitudes 
more  clearly  than  a  noun  in  the  plural  would ;  as,  "  The  theatre 
burst  into  tears,"  i.  e.,  the  persons  in  the  tlieatre,  Sr-c., 

We  speak  of  "  head  of  cattle."  This  mode  of  speakin<^,  in  which 
the  noun  does  not  take  the  plural  form,  though  plurality  is  in- 
tended, is  used  of  beasts  only,  or  of  men  in  contempt ;  as  when 
Pope  says,  "A  hundred  head  of  Aristotle's  friends,"  where  a  two- 
fold contempt  is  expressed:  first,  that  the  commentators  on 
Aristotle  were  as  dull  as  oxen  or  cattle ;  and,  secondly,  thjir  as  in- 
dividuals they  had  so  little  character  that  they  deserved  to  be 
reckoned  by  the  dozen  only,  or  the  hundred. 


LESSON    CVI. 

THE      ANTONOMASIA. 

This  is  a  branch  of  Metonymy,  and  is  a  figure  by  which 
Proper  Names  are  used  for  Common,  or  Common  for 
Proper. 

1.  The  Proper  for  the  Common: 

As  when  the  name  of  a  person  or  of  a  nation  is  given  to  a  man,  to  express 
his  being  endowed  with  qualities  or  manners  similar  to  those  referred  to  : 
thus  we  say,  "Solomon,"  for  a  wise  man;  "  Aristides,"  for  a  just  man; 
"  Job,"  for  a  patient  man ;  *'  Hercules,"  or  "  Sampson,"  for  a  strong  man ; 
"  Judas,"  for  a  traitor  ;  "  Demosthenes,"  or  "  Cicero,"  or  "  Canning,"  or 
"Webster,"  for  an  orator;  "Horace,"  or  "Virgil,"  or  "Milton,"  or 
"  Sliakspeare,"  for  a  poet;  "Croesus,"  for  a  rich  man;  "Mecsenas,"  for 
u  patron  of  learning;  "Nero,"  or  "Herod,"  for  a  cruel  man;  "Heliogaba- 
lus,"  for  a  glutton  ;  "  Messalina,"  or  "  Aspasia,"  for  a  courtesan. 

So,  if  a  man  is  stout  and  warlike,  he  is,  by  this  figure,  said  to 
be  ''  a  Hector ;"  if  aged,  "  it  Nestor ;"  if  wise  "  a  Solon ;"  if  witty, 


ANTONOMASIA.  ^      ^  261 

"an  Athenian;"  if  dull,  "a  Boeotian;"  if  cynical  or  censorious, 
^'a  Diogenes;"  if  merry,  "a  Democritus;"  if  handsome,  "an 
Adonis;"  if  self-admiring,  "an  Adonis;"  if  newly  married,  ''a 
Benedick"  (from  one  of  the  characters  in  the  play  ^'' Much  Ado 
about  Nothing^'^) ;  if  abstinent  and  chaste,  "  a  Joseph  ;"  if  a  lady's 
maid,  "  an  Abigail." 

2 .   The  Common  for  the  Proper : 

When  the  name  of  the  art  or  science  in  which  a  person  excelled  is  put 
for  the  person  himself;  as,  "  the  Koman  orator,"  for  Cicero  ;  "the  Eoman 
poet,"  for  Virgil. 

By  this  figure,  God  is  called  "the  Omnipotent,"  "the  Al- 
mighty," "the  Eternal,"  &c.;  Christ,  "the  great  Teacher,"  the 
Saviour,"  &c. ;  St.  Paul,  "the  great  Apostle;"  Aristotle,  "the 
Stagyrite,"  or  "Peripatetic;"  Anacreon,  "the  Bard  of  Teos;" 
Shakspeare,  "  the  Bard  of  Avon,"  "  the  poet  of  Nature  ;"  Tacitus, 
"  the  prince  of  historians ;"  a  king,  "  his  Majesty ;"  a  prince,  "  his 
Highness;"  the  pope,  "his  Holiness;"  an  ambassador,  "his  Ex- 
cellency ;"  persons  of  the  rank  of  nobles,  "  his  Grace,"  "  his  Lord- 
ship;" a  certain  and  undoubted  truth,  "Gospel;"  Gibbon,  "the 
historian  of  the  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire."  This 
last  vrriter  abounds  in  Antonomasia  :  Rome  is  "  the  country  of  the 
Caesars;"  Constantinople,  "the  Imperial  City;"  Constantine,  "the 
Protector  of  the  Church." 

Some  caution  is  to  be  employed  in  the  use  of  this  figure ;  the 
too  frequent  use  of  it  savors  of  affectation,  or  of  an  ostentatious 
show  of  learning.  It  is  also  to  be  considered  and  ascertained,  be- 
fore we  use  it,  whether  our  readers  are  acquainted  with  the  person 
or  thing  alluded  to;  for  if  not,  we  shall  eitl  er  not  be  understood, 
or  be  misunderstood. 


LESSON    CVII. 

THE    IRONY. 


This  is  a  form  of  speech,  or  words,  in  which  the  meaning 
is  directly  contrary  to  the  literal  signification  of  the  words 
employed,  not  with  a  view  to  deceive,  but  to  add  force  to 


262  THE  IRONY. 

our  remarks :  as  when  we  call  a  silly  person  "  a  Solomon ;" 
or  a  rogue,  "  an  honest  man ;"  or  an  unchaste  woman,  "  a 
Penelope ;"  or  when  we  say  a  thing  is  "  well  done,"  when 
it  is  badly  done. 

By  this  figure,  Yerres,  who  was  detestable  for  rapacity  and 
cruelty,  is  called  by  Cicero  "the  upright  and  honest  praetor  of 
Sicily ;"  and  Clodius,  the  murderer  of  an  illustrious  Roman,  is 
represented  by  Cicero  as  "  worthy  of  being  acquitted  for  the  in- 
tegrity of  his  life,  the  simplicity  of  his  manners,  and  the  virtues 
of  his  character." 

Irony  has  been  called  an  elocutionary  figure,  as  the  proper  ut- 
terance or  tone  of  voice  is  required  to  make  it  fully  understood, 
and  to  give  it  a  sting;  e.  g.^  Job,  xii.  2,  "No  doubt  but  ye  are 
the  people,  and  wisdom  shall  die  with  you !" 

This  figure  is  singularly  adapted  to  the  reproving  of  vice  and 
folly,  by  rendering  them  ridiculous.  Thus:  "Although  I  would 
have  you  instil  early  into  your  children's  breasts  the  love  of 
cruelty,  yet  by  no  means  call  it  by  its  true  name,  but  encourage 
them  in  it  under  the  name  of  fun." 

The  Hebrew  prophet  Elijah  (1  Kings  xxii.)  used  this  weapon  in  ex- 
posing the  folly  and  absurdity  of  idolatrous  worship  and  reliance  :  *'  Cry 
aloud,  for  he  is  a  god  ;  either  he  is  talking,  or  he  is  pursuing,  or  he  is  on  a 
journey,  or  peradventure  he  sleepeth,  and  must  be  awaked." 

Solomon  uses  powerful  irony  {Eccles.  xi.  9)  :  "  Kejoice,  0  youn^? 
man,"  &c. 

Irony  is  often  cowoeyed^  with  peculiar  power  ^  in  the  form  of  an 
Reclamation;  as  when  Cicero  derides  his  accuser  Balbus,  by  ex- 
claiming: "O  excellent  interpreter  of  the  law!  master  of  an- 
tiquity !  corrector  and  amender  of  our  constitution !" 

Sarcasm  is  an  embittered  sort  of  irony — the  result  of  intense 
hatred  and  scorn,  the  verbal  expression  of  which,  however,  is 
softened,  that  it  may  not  violate  the  proprieties  of  refined  society. 

Archbishop  Whately,  in  conversation  with  a  friend  who  said  of  certain 
Irish  orators,  "They  have  a  great  command  of  language,"  made  the  sar- 
castic reply  :  "  You  mistake,  sir,  language  has  a  great  command  of  them." 
The  brethren  of  Joseph  employed  this  figure  when  they  said  of  him,  *'  Be- 
hold, the  dreamer  cometh.'^ 

This  figure  is  generally  used  when  a  dead  or  dying  person  is 


THE   EUPHEMISM.  263 

insulted  with  scoffs,  as  tliat  of  the  Jews  when  our  Saviour  was 
agonizing  on  the  Cross:  "He  saved  others;  himself  he  cannot 
save;''  "Hail,  King  of  the  Jews!"  or  the  scoff  of  Tomyris  over 
tlie  corpse  of  Cyrus,  whose  head  she  caused  to  be  cut  off  and 
thrown  into  a  bowl  of  blood,  saying,  at  the  same  time,  "  Take  now 
thy  fill  of  blood,  which  thou  hast  always  thirsted  after." 

Isaiah  represents  the  dead  in  Hades  accosting  the  King  of  Baby- 
lon in  this  sarcastic  manner:  "Is  this  the  man  who  made  the 
.  earth  to  tremble  ?  Art  thou  also  become  weak  as  we  ?  Art  thou 
become  like  unto  us  ?"  The  Israelites,  when  pursued  by  Pha- 
raoh, in  their  terror  and  indignation,  said  to  Moses :  "  Because 
there  were  no  graves  in  Egypt,  hast  thou  taken  us  away  to  die  in 
the  wilderness?"  Anotlier  specimen,  too  long  to  be  quoted  here, 
may  be  found  in  Byron's  "  Childe  Harold,"  canto  iv.,  33-41. 

Mimesis  is  a  sarcasm  in  the  form  of  mimicry,  an  example  oi 
which  is  contained  in  Hotspur's  description  of  a  fop,  in  "Henry 
IV.,"  and  in  Mercutio's  early  conversations  in  "  Romeo  and  Ju- 
liet." 


LESSON    CVIII. 

THE   EUPHEMISM,    LITOTES,    ATfD    COMMUNICATION. 

The  JEhtphemisni  is  a  verbal  figure,  by  which  an  inoffen- 
sive word  or  expression  is  used  to  convey  a  disagreeable 
fact. 

The  words  "  deceased"  and  "  departed"  are  thus  used  instead 
of  "dead"  and  "died;"  "stopping  payment,"  instead  of  "be- 
coming bankrupt;"  "perishing  on  the  scaffold,''  instead  of  being 
hanged ;  "  slept  with  his  fathers,"  instead  of  being  buried  with 
them  ;  "  falling  asleep,"  instead  of  "dying." 

A  face  bloated  by  intemperance  is  thus  delicately  described  by 
Akenside: 

"  I  see  Anacreon  laugh  and  sing ; 
His  silver  tresses  breathe  perfume ; 
His  cheeJcs  display  a  second  spring 
Of  roses  taught  hy  ivine  to  hloomj*^ 


264  LITOTES. — COMMUNICATION. 

2.  Litotes  (or  Extenuation)  is  employed  when  we  do  not 
express  so  much  as  we  mean,  and  which  therefore  forms  a 
kind  of  synecdoche. 

Thus,  instead  of  saying,  "I  accept  your  kind  offer,"  we  say, 
"I  do  not  reject  your  kindness;"  or  instead  of  saying,  ''I  greatly 
blame  you,"  we  say,  ''I  cannot  commend  you  for  that;"  or  in- 
stead of  saying,  ''  I  have  very  disagreeable  news  to  communi- 
cate," we  say,  *'I  fear  that  the  news  I  have  to  communicate  will 
not  be  very  agreeable;"  or  instead  of  saying,  "I  disapprove  of 
your  conduct,"  we  say,  "  I  do  not  approve  of  it." 

3.  Communication  uses  the  pronoun  we  or  us  instead  of 
I  and  me,  thus  assuming  the  reader  or  hearer  as  partners 
with  us  in  what  is  said.  This  figure,  putting  many  for 
one,  is  a  sort  of  synecdoche. 

It  is  often  a  sign  of  the  writer's  modesty,  and  of  respect  for  his* 
readers.  If  a  minister  reproves  his  hearers  for  their  sins,  it  indi- 
cates humility  to  say,  ''^We  must  not  be  guilty,"  &c.,  instead  of 
saying,  "Pbi^,"  &c. ;  but  if  he  is  condemning  a  crime  of  which  he 
cannot  be  supposed  to  be  guilty,  his  politeness  should  not  carry- 
him  so  far  as  to  make  him  speak  of  himself  as  an  associate  in  their 
wickedness. 


LESSON  CIX. 

THE   CLIMAX,    OR    GRADATION. 

While  the  purpose  or  effect  of  hyperbole  is  to  exalt  our 
conceptions  of  a  subject  beyond  the  truth,  the  design  and 
effect  of  the  Climax  are  to  make  the  most  impressive  repre- 
sentation of  the  truth,  by  arranging  the  clauses  or  circum- 
stances in  an  ascending  series,  each  rising  in  importance 
above  the  preceding.     Thus  : 

"  The  cloud-capt  towers,  the  gorgeous  palaces, 
The  solemn  temples,  the  great  globe  itself, 
Yea,  all  that  it  mherits,  shall  dissolve," 


THE   CLIMAX.  265 

Adam,  on  first  seeing  Eve,  gratefully  exclaims: 

"  Thy  perfect  gift,  so  good, 
S<i  fit,  so  acceptable,  so  divine." 

Of  the  marriage  union,  he  says :  "  One  flesh,  (ine  heart,  one 
soul." 
Tragedies  furnish  many  examples : 

"  Can  you  raise  the  dead  ? 
Pursue  and  overtake  the  wings  of  time  ? 
And  bring  about  again  the  hours,  the  days, 
The  years  that  made  me  happy  ?" 

"  They  have  given  thee  back 
To  earth,  to  light  and  life,  to  love  and  me." 

**  I'll  cateh  it  ere  it  goes,  and  grasp  her  shade ; 
'Tis  life,  'tis  warm,  'tis  she,  'tis  she  herself." 

The  "  Pleasures  of  the  Imagination"  (Book  I.,  151-212),  and 
Addison's  ''  Spectator,"  No.  215,  in  relation  to  events  in  the  West 
Indies,  are  fine  specimens  of  the  climax. 

Mackenzie,  a  distinguished  Scottish  advocate,  in  addressing  a 
jury  upon  the  case  of  a  young  v^roman  accused  of  the  crime  of  in- 
fanticide, thus  admirably  uses  the  climax : 

"  Gentlemen,  if  one  man  had  any  how  slain  another,  if  an  adversary 
had  killed  his  opposer,  or  a  woman  had  occasioned  the  death  of  her  enemy, 
the  criminal  would  have  been  capitally  punished  by  the  Cornelian  law ; 
but  if  this  guiltless  infant,  who  could  make  no  enemy,  had  been  murdered 
by  his  own  nurse,  what  punishment  would  the  mother  have  demanded  1 
with  what  cries  and  exclamations  won  Id  she  have  stunned  your  ears  ! 
What  shall  we  say,  then,  when  a  woman,  guilty  of  homicide — a  mother, 
of  the  murder  of  her  innocent  child — has  comprised  all  these  misdeeds  in 
one  single  crime  ?  a  crime  in  its  own  nature  detestable  ;  in  a  woman,  pro- 
digious ;  in  a  mother,  incredible  ;  and  perpetrated  against  one  whose  age 
called  for  compassion,  whose  near  relation  claimed  affection,  and  whoso 
ijmocence  deserved  the  highest  favor." 

The  Anti-climax — a  figure  suited  to  burlesque  writing  or 
epeaking,  and  adapted  to  depreciate  or  disparage  an  ob- 
ject— is  the  converse  of  the  climax,  placing  first  the  most 
forcible  expressions  or  clauses,  instead  of  last. 

Lord  Bacon,  Pope  thus  characterizes  : 

"  The  greatest,  wisest,  meanest  of  mankind." 
12 


266  THE    ANTITHESIS. 


LESSOK  ex. 

THE    ANTITHESIS,    OR    CONTRAST. 

In  this  figure,  objects  and  sentiments  are  placed  in  con- 
trast and  opposition  to  others  of  the  same  kind,  so  as  to 
produce  the  stronger  impression. 

Thus  Cicero :  "  On  one  side  stands  modesty,  on  the  other  im- 
pudence; on  one  fidelity,  on  the  other  deceit;  here  piety,  there 
sacrilege ;  here  continency,  there  lust,"  &c. 

Again,  in  the  defence  of  Milo,  he  employs  this  figure  most  elo- 
quently : 

"  Can  you  believe  that  the  person  whom  he  scrupled  to  slay  when  ho 
might  have  done  so  with  full  justice,  in  a  convenient  place,  at  a  propei 
time,  with  secure  impunity,  he  made  no  scruple  to  murder  against  justice, 
in  an  unfavorable  place,  at  an  unseasonable  time,  and  at  the  risk  of  capita) 
condemnation  ?" 

The  same  rule  must  here  be  observed  as  in  good  com- 
parisons resulting  from  contrast;  they  must  take  place 
between  things  of  the  same  species.  Substantives  must  be 
set  in  opposition  to  substantives^  attributes^  qualities^  or 
faculties  of  the  same  kincl^  to  attributes^  qualities  and 
faxiulties. 

Examples. — Speaking  of  the  Thames,  a  writer  says : 

"  Though  deep^  yet  dear  ;  though  gentle^  yet  not  duU; 
Strong  ^without  rage;  without  o'er  flowing^  full.'''' 

Sometimes  Antithesis  brings  together  two  contrasted  truths: 
as,  ''''Flattery  brings  friends  ;  Truth  brings /<?^s." 

Sometimes  (as  in  Paradiastole)  only  part  of  a  word  is  opposed 
to  a  part  of  another  word ;  as,  "  Virtue  may  be  oyershadowed^ 
but  not  overwhelmed  ;"  forewarned^  forearmed. 

When  Antithesis  is  used  in  definition,  it  is  called  Antimetabole ; 
as,  "  A  Foem  is  a  speaking  picture  ;  a  picture  is  a  mute  Foemy 

Sometimes  one  case  of  a  noun  stands  against  another  case ;  as, 
\foot  to  foot :  hand  to  hand^ 


THE   ANTirHESIS.  267 

Sometimes  it  opposes  words  having  the  same  derivation;  as, 
"  I  write  friendly  of  friendship  to  a  friend?'' 

Sometimes  a  Proper  Name  is  first  used  as  the  name  of  a  person, 
and  then  to  denote  the  qualities  of  that  person;  as,  "George  will 
always  be  QeorgeP 

Sometimes  a  Common  Noun  also  is  used  in  the  same  way ;  as, 
"Home  is  home?'' 

Sometimes  (as  in  Antanaclasis)  a  word  having  one  sense,  is 
opposed  to  the  same  word  having  another  sense ;  as,  "  Learn  some 
craft  when  young,  that  you  may  do  without  craft  when  old." 

There  is  still  another  form  of  Antithesis,  where  words 
similar  in  sound  but  unlike  in  sense  are  opposed ;  this  is 
the  Paronomasia^  or  Pun^  and  is  only  to  be  used  in  famil- 
iar and  ludicrous  writings :  as, 

"  These  men,  for  the  gilt  (i.  e.  the  golden  bribes)  of  France — oh  I 
guilt  indeed  (i.  e.  oh,  wickedness  indeed) — have  formed  a  conspira- 
cy with  fearful  France."  We  give  another  example,  also  from 
Shakespeare : 

Chief  Justice.     "  Well !  the  truth  is,  Sir  John,  you  live  in  great  infamy." 
Falstaff.     "  He  that  buckles  him  in  my  belt  cannot  live  in  less. 
Chief  Justice.     *'  Your  means  are  very  slender,  and  your  waste  great." 
lalstaff.     "  I  would  it  were  otherwise :  I  would  my  means  were  greater, 
and  my  waist  slenderer." 

The  frequent  use  of  antithesis,  especially  when  the  opposition 
of  the  words  is  nice  and  quaint,  becomes  tiresome.  Single  sen- 
tences, however,  may  afford  pleasure ;  such  as  the  following  from 
Seneca:  "If  you  seek  to  make  one  rich,  study  not  to  iiicrease  his 
stores.^  but  to  diminish  his  desires;''''  "  If  you  regulate  your  desires 
according  to  the  standard  of  nature,  you  will  never  be  poor ;  il 
according  to  the  standard  of  opinion,  you  will  never  be  rich?'' 

A  maxim,  or  moral  saying,  is  properly  presented  in  the  anti- 
thetic form,  because,  being  designed  to  be  engraven  on  the  memo- 
ry, the  contrasted  expressions  are  adapted  to  such  a  design ;  e.  g.^ 
"  The  wise  shall  inherit  glory  ;  but  shame  shall  be  the  portion  of 
fools f'"*^  "A  soft  answer  turneth  away  wrath,  but  grievous  words 
stir  up  anger."  The  Proverbs  of  Solomon,  and  other  portions  of 
the  Bible,  abound  in  fine  Antitheses,  and  antithetic  forms  of  expres- 
sion.   Of  the  latter,  we  have  instances  in  the  ninety-fourth  Psalm : 


Sf6&  THE   ANTITHESIS. 

'^He  tliat  planted  the  ear,  shall  he  not  hear;  he  that  formed  the 
eye,  shall  he  not  see?" 

Dr.  Young  was  too  fond  of  antitheses.  Large  passages  like  the 
following  are  often  met  with  in  his  writings : 

"  The  peasant  complains  aloud  ;  the  courtier  in  secret  repines.  In  want, 
w  liat  distress  ?  in  affluence,  what  satiety  ?  The  great  are  under  as  much 
difficulty  to  expend  with  pleasure,  as  the  mean  to  labor  with  success. 
Tlie  ignorant,  through  ill-grounded  hope,  are  disappointed ;  the  knowing, 
through  knowledge,  despond.  Ignorance  occasions  mistake;  mistake, 
disappointment ;  and  disappointment  is  misery.  Knowledge,  on  the  other 
band,  gives  true  judgment ;  and  true  judgment  of  human  things,  gives  a 
demonstration  of  their  insufficiency  to  our  peace." — There  is  too  much  glit- 
ter in  such  a  style  as  this,  to  please  long.  We  are  fatigued,  by  attending 
to  such  quaint  and  artificial  sentences  often  repeated. 

There  is  another  sort  of  Antithesis^  the  beauty  of  which 
consists  in  surprising  us  by  the  unexpected  contrast  of 
things  which  it  brings  together.  Much  wit  may  be  shown 
in  this ;  but  it  belongs  wholly  to  pieces  of  professed  wit 
and  humor,  and  can  find  no  place  in  grave  compositions. 

Mr.  Pope,  who  is  remarkably  fond  of  antithesis,  is  often  happy 
in  this  use  of  the  figure.     So,  in  his  Kape  of  the  Lock : 

"  Whether  the  nymph  shall  break  Diana's  law, 
Or  some  frail  china  jar  receive  a  flaw ; 
Or  stain  her  honor,  or  her  new  brocade ; 
Forget  her  prayers,  or  miss  a  masquerade ; 
Or  lose  her  heart,  or  necklace  at  a  ball. 
Or  whether  heaven  has  doom'd  that  shock  must  fall." 

What  is  called  the  point  of  an  epigram,  consists,  for  the  most 
part,  in  some  antithesis  of  this  kind  ;  surprising  us  with  the  smart 
and  unexpected  turn  which  it  gives  the  thought;  and  in  the 
fewer  words  it  is  brought  out,  it  is  always  the  happier. 


269 


LESSON   CXI. 

ANTICIPATION. — CORRECTION. — OMISSION. — CONCESSION. 

EXPOSTULATION    (OR   COMMUNICATION). DUBITATION. 

1.  Anticipation  (Pi-olepsis),  is  a  figure  by  which  the 
speaker  anticipates  an  objection  to  what  he  advances,  and 
returns  an  answer  to  it. 

*'  What ,  then,  slidU  we  sin  because  we  are  not  under  the  law^  hut  under  grace? 
God  forbid !"  Another  example  we  find  in  Cicero's  Oration  for  Archias : 
"But  it  will  be  asked,  were  those  great  men  who  are  celebrated  in  history 
distinguished  for  that  kind  of  learning  which  you  so  highly  extol?  It 
would  be  difficult,  I  grant,  to  prove  this  of  them  all ;  but,"  &c. 

2.  Correction  (Epanorthosis),  is  a  figure  by  which  a 
writer  or  speaker  retracts  or  recalls  w^hat  he  has  said,  for 
the  purpose  of  putting  something  stronger  or  more  suitable 
in  its  place. 

Thus  Cicero  :  "  For  what  greater  blow  could  these  judges — if  they  are  to 
Oe  called  judges^  and  not  rather  parricides  of  their  country — have  given  to 
the  State,  than  when  they  banished?"  &c.  Another  example  is;  "O 
brave  youth  I    Brave  did  I  say  ?    Most  heroic  youth !" 

3.  Omission,  or  Pretermission  (Paralepsis) ;  by  which 
figure  the  writer  or  speaker  affects  to  cover  or  conceal 
what  he  plainly  insinuates  or  insists  upon. 

Thus  :  '*  I  shall  say  nothing  of  the  defendant  in  his  private  or  individual 
capacity.  I  shall  not  break  into  the  privacy  of  his  domestic  life.  I  shall 
not  whisper  in  your  ears  a  word  about  bis  integrity  or  his  honor."  Cicero 
abounds  in  this  figure.  As  another  example:  "  I  pass  by  his  headstrong 
temper,  which  killed  his  mother  ;  I  omit  to  speak  of  his  ingratitude  to  the 
best  of  fathers ;  I  say  nothing  of  his  cruelty  to  his  brother  and  sister  ;  I  shall 
speak  simply  of  his  behavior  in  the  present  transaction." 

4.  Concession  (Synchoresis),  is  a  figure  by  which  the 
speaker  grants  or  yields  up  something,  for  the  purpose  oi 
gaining  a  point,  without  the  admission  of  which  he  could 


270  CONCESSION,   ETC. 

not  secure  that  point.     This  is  a  powerful  figure  in  argu- 
ment. 

Thus:  "I  allow  that  nobody  was  more  nearly  related  to  the  deceased 
than  you ;  I  grant  that  he  was  under  some  obligation  to  you ;  nay,  that 
you  have  always  been  in  friendly  correspondence  with  each  other;  but 
what  is  all  this  to  the  last  will  and  testament?"  Again  :  '-^ I  acknowledge 
that  he  is  very  thoughtless  ;  but  he  is  quite  incapable  of  deliberate  vice." 

An  admirable  example  of  tliis  figure  ap]>ears  in  the  oration  of 
Cicero  in  favor  of  Flaccus,  in  wliich,  for  the  purpose  of  invalidat- 
ing the  testimony  of  the  Greeks,  who  were  witnesses  against  liis 
clients,  he  alloAVs  them  every  quality  but  that  which  was  neces- 
sary to  make  them  credited. 

5.  Communication  (Anacoenosis),  or  Expostulation,  is 
a  figure  by  which  a  speaker  argues  a  case  with  his  hearer 
or  with  his  opponent ;  or  by  which  an  injured  person,  in 
order  to  convince  the  oflfender  of  his  injustice  or  ingrati- 
tude, pleads  with  him  from  all  the  topics  of  reason  and  pro- 
priety, that  he  may  make  him  ashamed. 

Thus:  "Were  it  your  case,  what  would  you  answer?  Tell  me;  I  ap- 
peal to  your  inmost  thoughts;"  "  Had  the  case  been  your's,  what  would 
you,  or  what  could  you  have  done?"  Another  good  example  may  be 
found  in  the  speech  of  the  Lord  Chief  Justice  in  '*  Henry  IV.,"  second 
part,  last  scene  :  "  Question  your  royal  thoughts,"  &c. 

6.  DuBiTATioN  (Aporia)  ;  of  which  the  following  is  an 
mstance  :  "  Shall  I  speak  or  be  silent  ?  Shall  I  put  a  seal 
forever  on  the  deed  I  have  discovered,  or  make  it  known 
to  the  whole  world  ?" 


LESSON  CXII. 

ENUMERATION. — ACCUMULATION. — ASYNDETON. — POLYSYN- 
DETON,   ETC. 

1.  Enumeration  {oy  Aparithmesis)^  is  a  detail  of  things 
in  corresponding  words,  each  word  or  phrase  having  the 


271 

same    grammatical   character  ;    the   simplest   example    is 
counting,  "  one,  two,  three,"  &c. 

Other  examples  are  the  following :  "His  disinterestedness,  his  candor, 
his  kindness,  and  forbearance,  are  remarkable."  *'  By  a  series  of  miscon- 
duct, he  lost  his  fortune,  ruined  his  health,  alienated  his  friends,  and 
abridged  the  term  of  his  natural  life." 

A  statement  of  UJce  or  of  opposite  particulars  cannot  he  clearly 
and  forcibly  made^  unless  the  forms  of  expression  also  indicate  re- 
semblance or  contrast.  Correspondence  in  purpose  should  produce 
correspondence  of  construction. 

The  following  instance  of  enumeration  is  faulty  :  "  His  being  irregular, 
'ns  passions,  his  extravagant  spending,  his  losing  of  his  friends,  and  the 
increase  of  his  enemies,  quickly  brought  him  to  ruin." 

Corrected,  it  will  stand  thus : 

*'  His  irregularity,  his  passions,  his  extravagance,  the  loss  of  his  friends, 
and  the  increase  of  his  enemies,  quickly  brought  him  to  ruin." 

Nothing  is  more  common,  in  an  enumeration,  than  an  opposi- 
tion of  part  to  part,  and  the  opposition  should  always  be  kept 
clear  by  similarity  in  the  parts  not  opposed.  Hence  the  following 
example  fails :  "  In  the  same  way  that  John  hindered  Thomas, 
William  was  found  to  be  obstructed  by  Edward."  It  should  be, 
"  In  the  same  way  that  John  hindered  Thomas,  Edward  hindered 
William." 

A  fev/  more  examples  may  be  added,  in  order  to  compare  sim- 
ple Enumeration  with  Antithesis.  "  He  is  sensible,  learned,  and 
religious."  Here  we  have  a  mere  enumeration  of  qualities,  and 
the  woi;4s  denoting  them  are  properly  joined  in  one  construction; 
but  in  the  following,  where  a  contrast  is  to  be  enforced^  the  same 
words  are  distributed  into  two  constructions,  '^He  is  not  only  sen- 
sible and  learned,  but  he  is  religious,  too."  A  like  difference  ac- 
complished by  like  means,  is  shown  in  the  following : 

"  The  year,  day,  and  hour,  are  known."  "  Not  only  the  year,  but  the 
day  and  the  hour  are  known."  *'He  spoke  of  the  power  and  wisdom  of 
God."     "  He  spoke  of  Christ,  the  power  of  God,  and  the  wisdom  of  God.  * 

2.  If  the  particulars  are  hurried  together,  so  as  to  have 
the  effect  of  being  gathered  into  a  heap,  the  figure  is  called 
Accumulation  {Syjiathrcesmus)  \  as, 


272  A8TNDET0K,   ETC. 

"He  -was  every  tMng:  painter,  poet,  musician,  soldier,  ma^tratei 

iiunter,  fisher — what,  indeed,  was  he  not  ?" 

Again,  in  Cicero's  oration  against  Catiline: 

*'  You  do  nothing,  you  attempt  nothing,  you  plan  nothing,  which  I  not 
only  hear  but  even  see  and  clearly  comprehend.^' 

Again,  in  Paul's  Epistle  to  the  Komans : 

*'  For  I  am  persuaded  that  neither  death,  nor  life,  nor  angels,  nor  princi- 
f  alities,  nor  powers,  nor  things  present,  nor  things  to  come,  nor  height, 
nor  depth,  nor  any  other  creature,  shall  be  able  to  separate  us  from  tho 
love  of  God,  which  is  in  Christ  Jesus  our  Lord/' 

3.  If,  in  the  enumeration  of  particulars,  the  conjunctions 
are  left  out,  we  then  call  the  figure  Asyndeton  ;  if,  on  the 
contrary,  in  order  to  prolong  time  for  the  attention  to 
dwell  on  each  particular,  more  conjunctions  are  used,  than 
the  construction  requires,  we  call  the  figure,  Polysyndeton, 

Emmples  of  thes^.—Oi  the  first,  Caesar's  letter  to  the  Roman  Senate,  "  I 
came,  saw,  conquered  ;"  of  the  second,  "  When  Socrates  fell,  truth,  and 
virtue,  and  religion  fell  with  him."  ' 

4.  If,  in  the  enumeration,  each  particular  rises  in  force 
or  weight  above  the  preceding,  we  then  call  the  figure  Iti- 
crease  (Incrementum) ;  and,  under  certain  circumstances. 
Climax^  Gradation  (or  Anabasis).  The  figures  opposite 
to  these  are  called  Decrease  (Decrementum),  Anti-climax 
(Katabasis, — Bathos),  or  Descent, 

Increase  is  the  narae  properly  given  to  such  a  manner  of  speak- 
ing as  this:  "If  credit,  if  interest,  if  happiness,  are  of  no  estima- 
tion in  your  eyes,  think  on  the  consequences;  think  on  the 
precepts  of  religion  ;  think  on  the  hopes  of  immortality." 

Supposing  the  ascent  to  be  more  palpable,  we  shall  then 
properly  use  the  term  Climax,  or  Anabasis  ;  as, 

"  There  is  no  enjoyment  of  property  without  a  government,  no  govern* 
ment  without  a  magistrate,  no  magistrate  without  obedience,  ani  no  obe- 
iilence  when  every  one  acts  as  he  pleases.'' 

Again : 

"  Not  the  solemn  demand  of  my  person,  not  the  vengeance  of  the  Am- 
j  hictyonio  council  which  my  enemies  denounced  against  me,  not  the  ter- 


EXERCISES    ON    ENUMERATION,    ETC.  273 

ror  of  their  threateiiings,  not  the  flattery  of  their  promises, — no,  not  tho 
fury  of  those  accursed  wretches  whom  they  roused  like  wild  beasts  against 
me,  could  tear  my  affection  for  my  country  from  my  heart." 

The  following  brief  example  of  climax  is  added:  '^John  pre- 
pared for  the  good  work,  which  Thomas  began,  Edward  forward- 
ed, and  William  at  last  completed."  Reverse  the  order  of  these 
particulars,  and  though  the  sense  will  remain,  the  force  of  expres 
sion  will  be  lost. 


LESSON  CXIII. 

PRACTICAL   EXERCISES    ON    ENUMERATION   AND    OTHER 
FIGURES    OP   THE   PRECEDING   LESSON. 

Write  the  following  sentences  with  such  alterations  as 
the  preceding  lesson  requires : 

Spring,  and  summer,  and  autumn,  and  winter,  correspond  respectively 
to  youth,  maturity,  old  age,  death. — The  villain  is  gone,  has  fled,  run  away, 
and  darted  off. — The  enemy  said,  I  will  pursue,  and  I  will  overtake,  and  I 
will  divide  the  spoil.— Destitute  of  principle,  he  regarded  neither  his  family, 
nor  his  friends,  nor  his  reputation. — Neither  threat,  entreaty,  riches  on  the 
one  hand,  nor  poverty  on  the  other,  could  sway  his  mind  from  the  resolu- 
tion he  had  formed. — In  all  stations  and  conditions,  the  important  relations 
take  place,  of  masters  and  servants,  and  husbands  and  wives,  and  parents 
and  children,  and  brothers,  and  friends,  and  citizens,  and  subjects. — 
While  the  earth  remaineth,  seed-time  and  harvest,  cold,  heat,  summer, 
winter,  day,  and  night,  shall  not  cease. — He  determined  to  give  up  affairs 
and  to  collect  his  debts,  and  to  sell  his  estate,  and  to  take  leave  of  all  con- 
nected with  him,  and  to  go  abroad  forever. — At  one  and  the  same  time,  to 
listen  to  one  person,  and  to  read  the  letter  of  another,  and  write  to  a  third, 
and  dictate  to  a  fourth,  is  an  achievement  to  which  probably  no  man,  ex- 
cept Julius  Cfesar,  was  ever  found  competent. — Horses,  and  dogs,  and  men, 
and  women,  and  beggars,  and  gentlefolk,  all  were  mingled  in  that  wild 
rout. — The  long  procession  included  heralds,  musicians,  flag-bearers, 
priests,  magistrates,  burgesses,  horse-soldiers,  foot-soldiers,  and  peasants 
in  their  holiday  attire. 

Innocence  is  there,  kindly  peace,  simple  quiet,  meads  with  lowing  herds, 
tune  of  birds,  lapse  of  streams,  saunter  with  a  book,  and  warbling  muse  in 
praise  of  hawthorns. — Rank  may  confer,  but  it  will  not  of  necessity  insure 
respect.  Rank  may  confer  influence ;  but  will  not  necessarily  produce 
virtue. — He  might  have  been,  and  he  is,  in  the  estimation  of  some  people, 
tlie  happiest  man  in  the  world. — He  might  have  been  lappy,  and  is  now 

12» 


274 


THE   INTERROGATION. 


fully  convinced  of  it.— It  is  your  duty  and  your  interest  to  be  studious  and 
obliging.— It  is  not  only  your  duty,  but  interest,  to  be  studious  and 
obliging. 

To-day  we  are  here ;  to-morrow  we  are  gone. — The  old  may  inform  the 
young  ;  and  the  young  may  animate  those  who  are  advanced  in  life. — Ven- 
erable shade !  I  then  gave  thee  a  tear ;  accept  now  of  one  cordial  drop 
that  falls  to  thy  memory. — The  account  is  generally  balanced ;  for  what  we 
lose  on  the  one  hand,  we  are  gainers  by  on  the  other. — This  author  is  more 
remarkable  for  strength  of  sentiment,  than  harmonious  language. — Tho' 
laughers  will  be  for  those  who  have  most  wit ;  the  serious  part  of  mankind 
for  those  who  have  most  reason  on  their  side.  He  can  bribe,  but  he  is 
not  able  to  seduce ;  he  can  buy,  but  he  has  not  the  power  of  gaining ;  he 
can  lie,  but  no  one  is  deceived  by  him. — He  embraced  the  cause  of  liberty 
faintly,  and  pursued  it  without  resolution ;  he  grew  tired  of  it,  when  he 
had  much  to  hope  ;  and  gave  it  up  when  there  was  no  ground  for  appre- 
luension. — The  great  friend  of  truth  is  time ;  that  which  is  most  unfriendly 
to  her  is  prejudice ;  and  that  which  is  constantly  in  the  act  of  accompany- 
ing her,  is  humility. — He  thus  became  the  principal  man  in  his  native 
place  : — by  the  friends  he  made,  he  obtained  rank  and  honors ;  by  honesty 
and  generous  dealing,  he  made  friends ;  and  by  early  industry,  he  raised 
himself  to  wealth. — There  are  three  modes  of  bearing  the  ills  of  life ;  by  re- 
ligion, which  is  the  best ;  by  indifference,  which  is  the  most  common ;  by 
philosophy,  which  is  the  most  ostentatious. — It  is  pleasant  to  be  virtuous 
and  good,  because  that  is  to  excel  many  others ;  it  is  pleasant  to  grow  bet- 
ter, because  that  is  to  excel  ourselves  ;  it  is  pleasant  to  command  our  ap- 
petites and  passions,  and  keep  them  in  due  order  within  the  bounds  of 
reason  and  religion,  because  this  is  empire ;  nay,  it  is  pleasant  even  to 
mortify  and  subdue  our  lusts,  because  that  is  victory. 


LESSON  CXIV. 

THE   INTERROGATION. — THE   EXCLAMATION. 

Interrogation  (or  Erotesis)  is  a  figure,  or  form  of  sen- 
tence, which  requests,  or  apparently  requests  an  answer 
without  the  logical  formality  of  affirming  the  request;  as 
"  Art  thou  angry  ?"  "  Where  are  your  fathers  ?" 

These  expressed  with  logical  formality,  would  be  expanded  in 
some  such  manner  as  the  following:  "Whether  or  not  thou  art 
angry,  is  what  I  request  thee  to  tell  me."  "  Where  your  fathers 
ure,  is  a  fact  which  you  are  called  upon  to  declare." 


THE  INTERROGATION*  275 

All  sentences  interrogative  in  form  are  rhetorical,  even  the  most 
familiar.  A  distinction  has  been  made  between  such  as  really, 
and  such  as  apparently  require  an  answer,  the  former  being 
deemed  plain,  and  only  the  latter  figurative*  The  distinction  is 
unsound.  It  is  framed  on  a  supposition  that  rhetoric  begins  late 
in  helping  to  form  the  structure  of  speech.  We  are  rhetoricians 
in  infancy,  and  by  slow  degrees  become  grammarians  and  logi- 
cians. 

The  design  of  the  Interrogation  is  to  awaken  particular 
attention  to  the  subject  of  discourse,  and  it  is  admirably 
adapted  to  produce  a  powerful  impression  of  the  truth  of  a 
subject,  as  it  seems  to  challenge  the  impossibility  of  con- 
tradiction. 

The  Scripture  furnishes  many  beautiful  examples  of  the  use  oi 
this  figure:  "He  that  planted  the  ear,  shall  He  not  hear?  He 
that  formed  the  eye,  shall  He  not  see?"  ''  Canst  thou  by  search- 
ing find  out  God  ?  Canst  thou  find  out  the  Almighty  to  perfec- 
tion ?"  "To  what  purpose  is  the  multitude  of  your  sacrifices 
unto  me?" 

Satan's  address  to  Eve  is  wonderfully  heightened  by  the  inter- 
rogations with  which  it  is  interspersed : 

*'  Queen  of  this  Universe !  do  not  believe 
Those  rigid  threats  of  death ;  ye  shall  not  die ; 
How  should  you  ?    By  the  fruit  ?    It  gives  you  life 
To  knowledge.    By  the  threat'ner  ?    Look  on  me, 
Me  who  have  touch'd  and  tasted,  yet  both  live, 
And  life  more  perfect  have  attain'd  than  Fate 
Meant  me,  by  venturing  higher  than  my  lot." 

The  following  passage  in  that  noblest  of  des  jriptive  poems,  "  The 
Seasons,"  contains  a  series  of  the  most  beautiful  interrogatories: 

"Falsely  luxurious,  will  not  man  awake, 
And  springing  from  his  bed  of  sloth,  enjoy 
The  cool,  the  fragrant,  and  the  silent  hour, 
To  meditation  due  and  sacred  song? 
For  is  there  aught  in  sleep  can  charm  the  wise  I 
To  lie  in  dead  oblivion,  losing  half  " 
The  fleeting  moments  of  too  short  life  , 
Total  extinction  of  the  enlighten'd  soul  1 
Or  else  to  feverish  vanity  alive, 


276  e:^clamation. 

Wilder'd  and  tossing  through  distemper'd  dreams? 
Who  would  in  such  a  gloomy  state  remain 
Longer  than  Nature  craves  ;  when  ev'ry  muse 
And  every  blooming  pleasure  waits  without, 
To  bless  the  wildly  devious  morning  walk  ?" 

Exclamation  (or  Ecphonesis),  is  a  natural  cry  carried 
out  into  a  sentence ;  the  expression  of  emotion  without  the 
logical  formality  of  affirming  the  emotion ;  as  "  How  sur- 
prising !"     "  What  a  piece  of  work  is  man !" 

These,  expressed  with  logical  formality,  would  be  expanded  in 
some  such  manner  as  the  following  :  "  That  which  is  before  me, 
is  very  surprising;"  ''man  is  a  most  wonderful  piece  of  work." 

The  Exclamation  expresses  strong  passion  or  emotion  in  vehe- 
ment language:  as,  ''O  Death,  where  is  thy  sting?  O  Grave, 
where  is  thy  victory." — St.  Paul. 

"  Oh  I  unexpected  stroke— worse  than  death  I"    MiUon. 


LESSON  CXV. 

EXERCISES    ON   EXCLAMATION   AND   INTERROGATION. 

When,  for  rhetorical  effect,  it  is  desirable  to  use  one  or 
other  of  these  figures,  instead  of  plainer  forms  of  the  sen- 
tence, and  whicli  of  these  figures  is  preferable  to  the  other 
in  particular  cases,  must  be  left  to  the  student's  judgment. 
At  present  nothing  more  is  proposed  than  examples  for 
exercises ;  previously  to  which,  let  the  following  sentences 
be  compared : 

"  He  who  only  believes  that  after  a  short  turn  on  the  stage  of  the  world, 
he  is  to  sink  into  oblivion,  and  lose  his  consciousness  forever,  cannot  exal*- 
his  thoughts  to  any  thing  great  or  noble." 

The  thought  is  here  laid  down,  without  the  least  indication  of 
feeling,  in  the  shape  of  a  plain  logical  proposition,  a  shape  which 
on  some  occasions  may  be  the  most  eligible. 

"  He  cannot  exalt  his  thoughts  to  any  thing  great  or  uoble,  because  he 


EXERCISES   ON   EXCLAMATION,    ETC.  277 

Oiiiy  belie  ves  that  after  a  short  turn  on  the  stage  of  this  world,  he  is  to 
sink  into  oblivion,  and  to  lose  his  consciousness  forever." 

This  change  of  construction  effects  a  change  in  the  logical  char- 
acter of  the  sentence — it  is  no  longer  the  enunciation  of  the 
thought  as  a  general  proposition,  but  as  a  particular  one  included 
in  it,  accompanied  by  the  reason  or  argument  based  on  that  un- 
derstood general  proposition. 

^''He  cannot  exalt  his  thoughts  to  any  thing  great  or  noble,  who  only  be- 
lieves that  after  a  short  turn  on  the  stage  of  this  world,  he  is  to  sink  into 
oblivion,  and  lose  his  consciousness  forevar." 

This  is  a  rhetorical  deviation  from  the  pure  logical  form  of  the 
lirst  example,  vs^ith  no  other  effect  than  the  indication  of  some 
degree  of  feeUng  accompanying  conviction.  The  tw^o  grammati- 
cal parts  are  now,  as  in  the  second  example,  not  nominative  and 
verb,  but  verb,  and  another  verb  which  we  may  deem  the  adverb 
of  the  former. 

"  Can  he  exalt  his  thoughts  to  any  thing  great  or  noble,  who  only  be- 
lieves that  after  a  short  turn  on  the  stage  of  this  world,  he  is  to  sink  into 
oblivion,  and  to  lose  his  consciousness  forever?" 

"  How  impossible  that  any  one  should  exalt  his  thoughts  to  any  thing 
great  or  noble,  who  only  believes  that  after  a  short  turn  on  the  stage  of  this 
world,  he  is  to  sink  into  oblivion,  and  to  lose  his  consciousness  forever !" 

These  deviations  are  still  more  decidedly  rhetorical,  indicating, 
m  both  instances,  a  greater  degree  of  feeling  in  the  speaker.  And 
such  forms  of  sentence,  with  a  preference  sometimes  for  one, 
sometimes  the  other,  are  adopted  by  every  speaker,  as  often  as 
the  occasion,  and  his  degree  of  feeling,  call  for  them. 

Exercise. 

Cast  the  following  sentences  into  the  form  of  Interroga- 
tion or  Exclamation,  choosing  the  one  or  the  other  as  the 
sense  may  seem  to  render  desirable. 

1.  There  is  no  reason,  if  we  have  all  that  nature  craves,  that  we  should 
not  be  content.     (Why.) 

2.  The  best  resolutions  avail  nothing,  if  we  do  not  put  them  in  practice. 
(What.) 

3.  To  breathe  the  fresh  air  of  the  country  after  being  long  confined  in 
the  dose  and  murky  city,  is  very  delightful.     (How.) 


278  EXERCISES   ON   EXCLAMATION,    ETC. 

4.  To  come  on  shore,  and  feed  on  fresh  provisions  after  a  lon^  voyajye, 
is  a  hixiiry.     (What.) 

5.  After  so  long  a  time,  I  am  happy  to  see  you.     (How.) 

6.  There  is  nothing  in  all  the  pomp  of  the  world,  the  enjoyment  of  luxu- 
ry, the  gratification  of  passion,  comparable  to  the  tranquil  delight  of  a  good 
conscience. 

7.  We  wait  till  to-morrow  to  be  happier;  there  is  no  reason  for  not  being 
BO  to-day.  We  shall  not  be  younger.  We  are  not  sure  we  shall  be  health- 
ier.    Our  passions  will  not  become  feebler,  and  our  love  of  the  world  less. 

8.  No  shadow  can  be  more  vain  than  the  life  of  a  great  part  of  mankind. 
Of  all  that  eager  and  bustling  crowd  which  we  behold  on  earth,  very  few 
discover  the  path  of  true  happiness.  Very  few  can  we  find  whose  activity 
tias  not  been  misemployed,  and  whose  course  terminates  not  in  confessionR 
of  disappointment. 

9.  We  cannot  expect  that  mankind  will  take  advice,  when  they  will  not 
BO  much  as  take  warning.  10.  None  are  so  seldom  found  alone,  and  so 
soon  tired  of  their  own  company,  as  those  coxcombs  that  are  on  the  best 
terms  with  themselves.  11.  If  men  are  born  with  two  eyes,  and  with  only 
one  tongue,  it  is  that  they  should  see  twice  as  much  as  they  say.  12.  It  is 
very  foolish  to  be  quick  in  arraigning  physical  difficulties  which  we  cannot 
account  for.  It  is  absurd  to  be  wiser  than  nature,  in  other  words,  to  be 
wiser  than  God.  13.  He  is  much  to  be  pitied  that  can  please  nobody.  But 
much  more  is  he  to  be  pitied  that  nobody  can  please.  14.  A  clear  and 
flowing  style  seems  very  easy  of  imitation.  To  him  who  first  makes  the 
attempt,  it  is  very  difficult.  15.  Very  great  are  the  facilities  to  travelling, 
which  have  been  opened  in  our  days,  by  the  application  of  the  powers  of 
«team.  16.  There  is  a  very  great  difference  between  the  race  of  mankind, 
And  any,  the  highest  race  among  brutes.  And,  among  men,  a  difference, 
almost  or  quite  as  great,  is  often  seen  between  one  man  and  another. 

17.  It  frequently  happens,  that  they  who  are  loudest  in  their  exclama- 
tions against  the  partiality,  the  envy,  and  the  ingratitude  of  mankind,  are 
themselves  remarkable  instances,  in  their  own  conduct,  of  the  vices  they 
are  so  forward  to  denounce. 


LESSON    CXVI. 

PARENTHESIS. — ANALEPSIS. — APPOSITION. 

Parenthesis  is  the  insertion  of  a  sentence  within  a  sen- 
tence ;  as,  "  Almost  every  man  (with  shame  he  it  spoken) 
looks  more  to  his  temporal  than  to  his  eternal  interests." 

Analepsis  (or  Recovery)  is  a  method  of  enforcing  the 


ANALEPSIS.  279 

connection  between  the  protasis  and  apodosis  of  a  Period, 
by  bringing  up  the  whole  meaning  of  the  former  to  a 
single  word,  and  placing  this  word,  with  grammatical  re- 
dundancy, at  the  head  of  the  latter ;  thus : 

*'  The  guardian  of  my  youth,  and  the  friend  of  my  maturer  years ;  my 
physician  in  sickness,  my  prudent  adviser  in  health ;  he  surely  will  not  be 
long  absent  from  me  in  this  emergency." 

Antanaclasis  (or  Reciprocation)  consists  in  calling  up, 
after  intervening  clauses,  the  words  which  preceded,  so  as 
to  bring  them  to  that  part  of  the  period  with  which  they 
are  to  make  construction ;  and  the  words  so  brought  up 
may,  or  may  not,  be  accompanied  by  a  slight  variation  or 
addition ;  thus : 

"  The  man  in  whom  I  had  placed  full  confidence,  who  owed  all  to  my 
kindness,  who  had  the  custody  of  what  I  most  valued,  and  who  had  vowed 
to  be  faithful  to  me  ;  this  very  man^  I  say^  was  the  first  to  betray  me." — 
"Every  sentence  contained  in  it  (if  the  interpretation  of  words  is  to  be 
settled,  not  according  to  fancy,  but  by  the  common  rules  of  language), 
every  sentence,  I  say,  contained  in  this  little  book,  is  to  be  found  in  the 
brightest  pages  of  English  literature,  and  the  most  sacred  volumes  of 
English  law." 

The  grammatical  figure  Apposition  is  often  used  ^vith 
something  of  the  same  eifect  as  those  two  which  are  more 
strictly  rhetorical  figures.  The  repetition  of  a  word  for  the 
same  end  is,  under  certain  circumstances,  called  Anaphora^ 
and  sometimes  Echo.  Of  the  Apposition,  the  following  are 
examples : 

"  Music  and  poetry,  arts  which  address  the  imagination  and  feelings 
through  the  sense  of  hearing,  originally  existed  as  one  and  the  same 
thing." — "William  of  Normandy,  a  man  whom  the  Saxons  feared  as  well 
as  hated,  vainly  endeavored  to  change  the  language  and  institutions  of  the 
country." — "  He  was  in  his  seventieth  year;  an  age  when  one  ought  to  be 
well  prepared  for  eternity." — "Man,  said  he,  is  born  to  trouble;  a  truth 
often  expressed,  because  often  experienced." — "  He  gave  his  mind  up  to 
low  pleasures  ;  pleasures  which  destroy  the  health  loth  of  soul  and  body." 

It  is  this  last  way  of  recovering  the  sense  of  a  clause  or  sentence, 
which,  by  some,  has  been  called  Echo ;  it  is,  also,  in  instances  like 
this,  called  Anadiplosis. 


280  EXERCISES   ON   PARENTHESIS,   ETC. 


LESSON  CXVII. 

EXERCISES    ON   THE   FIGURES   IN   THE   PRECEDING   LESSON. 

Improve  the  following  sentences  : 

By  the  use,  or  by  avoiding  the  use  of  Parenthesis,  or  of 
Analepsis,  or  Antanaclasis ; 

Or,  by  the  insertion,  when  advantageously  practicable,  of 
a  noun  to  bring  up  the  sense,  with  the  same  effect  as  in  using 
the  other  forms  of  Analepsis. 

1.  If  we  never  experienced  the  bitter  of  life,  we  should  be  incapable  oi 
a  relish  for  its  sweets ;  and  every  one,  at  times,  must  experience  it. 

2.  In  lying  down  to  rest,  it  is  sweet  to  be  able  to  say,  "  Since  I  left  this 
couch,  my  walk  has  been  with  my  Maker ;"  if,  indeed,  a  child  of  dust  can 
ever  truly  say. 

3.  He  who,  when  he  rises  in  the  morning,  has  no  settled  duty,  no  fixed 
good  purpose  before  him,  will  be  almost  inevitably  and  unconsciously  led, 
during  the  day,  to  sins  of  omission  or  commission,  that  must  call  for  bitter 
repentance  at  night ;  and  how  many  there  are  who  rise  with  their  minds 
thus  vacant  for  evil ! 

4.  Never  delay  till  to-morrow  (for  to-morrow  is  not  yours  ;  and  though 
you  should  live  to  enjoy  it,  you  must  not  overload  it  with  a  burden  not  its 
own)  what  reason  and  conscience  tell  you  ought  to  be  performed  to-day. 

5.  We  must  not  imagine  that  there  is,  in  true  religion,  any  thing  which 
overcasts  the  mind  with  sullen  gloom  and  melancholy  austerity  (for  false 
ideas  may  be  entertained  of  religion,  as  false  and  imperfect  conceptions  of 
virtue  have  often  prevailed  in  the  world),  or  which  derogates  from  that 
esteem  which  men  are  generally  disposed  to  yield  exemplary  virtues. 

6.  He  that  aspires  to  be  the  head  of  a  party,  he  will  find  it  more  difficult 
to  please  his  friends,  than  to  perplex  his  foes. 

7.  That  man  who  pursues  noble  ends  by  noble  means,  whether  he  pros- 
per, and  take,  in  consequence,  his  lot  among  princes,  or  whether  he  fail,* 
and  sink  to  the  lowest  depths  of  calamity, — is  great  indeed. 

8.  The  generosity  which  robs  Peter  that  it  may  give  lavishly  to  JPaul, 
which  neglects  the  claims  of  honest  creditors  that  it  may  retain  wherewithal 
to  squander  on  gamblers,  which  is  niggardly  to  the  poor,  and  bounteous 

•  only  to  those  who  already  have, — if,  in  compliance  with  a  faulty  custom, 
we  must  call  it  generosity,  is  not  a  virtue,  but  a  widely  hurtful  vice. 

0  The  event  in  life  which  we  have  most  desired,  which  we  have  tried 
to  bring  about  by  unceasing  contrivances,  which  we  have  prayed  to  reach 


HYPERBATON,   ETC.  281 

on  each  appearing  mom,  and  sighed  to  have  missed  on  each  returniiig 
night  ;-*when  at  length  attained,  often  proves  the  great  calamity  in  life's 
career ;  the  epoch  from  which  are  to  be  dated  only  reverses  and  woe. 


LESSON    CXVIII. 

HTPERBATON. — ANACOLUTHON. AP0SI0PESI8. 

Hyperhaton^  or  Transposition^  is  an  arrangement  of 
words  for  rhetorical  effect,  different  from  that  which  gram- 
mar or  logic  would  prescribe ;  as,  "  Silver  and  gold  have  I 
none ;"  "  Great  is  the  Lord  !"  Sometimes  there  is  gram- 
matical redundancy  joined  with  this  figure;  "  Your  fathers^ 
where  are  they  f  And  the  prophets^  do  they  live  forever  ?" 
It  is  then  both  hyperbaton  and  pleonasm. 

A  transposition  is  called  Hysteron  when  that  which  should  be 
last  comes  first ;  as,  ^''Bred  and  born,"  for  horn  and  'bred  :  and  it  is 
called  Anastrophe  when  a  governing  word,  that  usually  comes  first, 
is  placed  last ;  as,  "  the  woods  among.''''  Hyperbaton,  as  a  general 
term,  includes  all  three  figures. 

Anacoluthon^  or  Inconsequence^  is  an  interruption  of  the 
grammatical  construction,  the  protasis  not  having  its  prop- 
er apodosis.  If,  however,  the  interruption  occurs  less  as 
an  effect  of  emotion,  than  of  a  sudden  purpose  in  the 
speaker  to  hold  back  what  he  was  about  to  say,  it  is  called 
Aposiopesis^  or  Silence. 

Anacolwthon,  though  a  grammatical  defect,  is  a  rhetorical  beauty, 
if  naturally  produced  or  imitated  ;  as,  "If  thou  art  he — but,  oh  !  how 
fallen  !"  "  He  who  hath  seen  life  in  all  its  shapes,  and  fully  knows 
its  good  and  evil — No !  there  is  nothing  on  earth  which  can  make  a 
wise  man  desire  a  greater  length  of  days  than  heaven  appoints." 
These  are  instances,  in  which  the  break-down  is  the  effect  of  emotion. 
The  following  is  an  example  of  Aposiopesis : 

"  I  declare  to  yon  that— but  we  must  not  now  lose  time  in  words." 

The  design  of  the  Aposiopesis  is,  when,  from  emotion  or 


282  REPETITION   AND   REDUNDANCY. 

violent  affection,  the  speaker  breaks  off  his  speech  before 
the  sense  is  completed,  in  order  to  aggravate  the  purpose 
of  his  address. 

Thus,  "Let  me  close  the  scene — Humanity  cannot  sustain  it." 
Thus,  also,  the  compassionate  Saviour  of  the  world  seems  to  have  been 
BO  full  of  grief  when  he  uttered  the  exclamation,  "If  thou  hadst  known, 
even  thou,  at  least  in  this  thy  day,  the  things  that  belong  unto  thy  peace," 
that  he  could  not  give  utterance  to  that  inevitable  and  intolerable  misery 
which  was  coming  on  the  rebellious  city  of  Jerusalem ;  and,  therefore,  having 
made  a  silent  pause  and  let  his  tears  speak  what  his  tongue  could  not  utter, 
he  left  the  sentence  imperfect,  and  then  most  awfully  added,  "  but  now 
they  are  hidden  from  thine  eyes." 

Adam's  declaration  to  Eve  is  a  beautiful  exemplification  of  this  figure, 
declarative  of  the  loftiest  aspirations  to  display  the  utmost  courage  and 
daring  in  the  presence  of  loveliness  and  innocence.  "  While  shame— thou 
looking  on,"  &c. 


LESSON  CXIX. 

REPETITION    AND    REDUNDANCY. 

Repetition  gracefully  and  emphatically  repeats  either  tne 
same  words,  or  the  same  sense  in  different  words.  The 
second  oration  of  Cicero  against  Antony  contains  a  beau- 
tiful example : 

"  As  trees  and  plants  necessarily  arise  from  seed^  so  are  you,  Antony,  the 
seed  of  this  most  calamitous  war.  You  mourn,  O  Eomans,  that  three  of 
your  armies  have  been  slaughtered  by  Antony!  you  lament  the  loss  of 
your  most  illustrious  citizens !  They  were  torn  from  you  by  Antony  ;  the 
authority  of  this  order  is  deeply  wounded  by  Antony ;  in  short,  all  the 
calamities  that  we  have  ever  beheld  (and  what  calamities  have  we  not  be- 
held?) if  we  reason  rightly,  have  been  entirely  owing  to  Antony.  As 
Helen  was  of  Troy,  so  the  bane,  the  misery,  the  destruction  of  this  State, 
is  Antony.'''' 

The  figures  of  Repetition  and  Redundancy,  are  sub- 
divided into  the  following : 

1.  Anaphora^  which  continues  a  sentence  by  emphatically  re- 
peating the  same  word  or  words  at  the  beginning  of  clauses ;  as 
"  Peace  crowns  our  life ;  peace  breeds  plenty.'' 


^  THE   ALLITERATION.  283 

2.  Epipfiora^  or  Epistrophei  which  repeats  the  same  word  or 
words  at  the  end  of  clauses ;  as,  "  We  are  born  in  sorrow  ;  we  pass 
life  in  sorrow  ;  and  we  die  in  sorrow^ 

3.  EpanapTiora^  or  Symploce^  which  unites  the  practice  of  both 
the  preceding  figures ;  as,  "  Yice^  for  a  moment,  brings  pleasure ; 
vice^  forever  after,  destroys  pleasure.-'' 

4.  Anadiplosis  ends  a  clause  and  begins  the  next  with  the  same  - 
word  ;  as,  "Prize  wisdom ;  wisdom  is  a  jewel." 

5.  Epanalepsis  begins  a  clause  with  a  word  that  is  made  to  end 
the  next  clause;  as,  '"'-Sins  stain  the  soul;  forsake  thy  sins.'''' 

6.  Epanodos  repeats  words  in  inverted  order ;  as,  "  Woe  unto 
them  that  call  good,  evil ;  and  evil,  good;  who  put  darhness  for 
light,  and  light  for  darJcness?^ 

7.  Epizeuxis  repeats  words  or  phrases  in  the  paroxysm  of 
passion;  as,  "0  my  son  Absalom!  m}^  son,  my  son  Absalom! 
Would  I  had  died  for  thee,  O  Absalom,  my  son,  my  son!" 

8.  8yno7iymy  uses  different  words  of  the  same  meaning;  as, 
"  Kogue,  villain,  scoundrel !  no  name  is  too  bad  for  thee." 

9.  Exergasia  uses  different  phrases  or  short  speeches  with  the 
same  meaning;  as,  "What  was  thy  sword  doing?  against  whose 
breast  didst  thou  raise  its  point?  how  were  thy  weapons  em- 
ployed ?" 

10.  Pleonasm  is  a  general  name  for  redundancy  of  words,  in 
order  to  dwell  upon  a  meaning  with  energy  or  passion ;  as,  "  He  is 
the  very  same  person ;"  "  False  traitor ;"  "  The  most  Highest." 


LESSON   CXX. 

THE     ALLITERATION. 

Alliteration  is  the  placing  of  words  together,  or  near  to- 
gether, that  begin  with  the  same  letter  or  sound;  as 
"  Ruiii  seize  thee,  ruthlesi}  king." 

Ilomoioteleiiton  \^  a  similar  placing  of  words  togethei -* 
U'hich  have  the  same  ending,  or  rhyme ;  as,  "  To  the  fail- 
ings of  his  friends  he  was  kind^  but  not  hlindP 


284  THE   ALLITERATION. 

Onomatopoeia  is  a  coinage  of  words  from  some  natural 
sound ;  as  in  saying,  "  He  hemmed  and  hawed  before  he 
spoke." 

Among  the  best  specimens,  perhaps,  of  Alliteration,  are  Burns'  "  Seest 
thou  thy  lover  lowly," — Akenside's  "ghostly  gloom  of  groves," — Gray's 
'*  nor  cast  one  longing,  lingering  look  behind," — Thomson's  "  broad, 
brown,  below,  extensive  harvests  hang  their  heavy  head," — Milton's  "  Be- 
liemoth,  biggest  born  of  earth," — "  their  bare  broad  backs  upheave,"— 
"  faithful  found  among  the  faithless,  faithful  only  he  ;" — and  "  the  foolish- 
ness of  fools  is  folly," — *'  the  treacherous  dealer  hath  dealt  treacherously," 
— "  all  her  ways  are  ways  of  pleasantness,  and  all  her  paths  are  paths  of 
peace,"  of  Scripture  composition. 

But  beautiful  as  alliterative  metre  is  v^hen  tastefully  and  judi- 
ciously employed,  it  is  necessary  not  to  be  profuse  in  its  use,  as 
by  its  quaint  and  studied  adoption  language  may  be  deformed  in- 
stead of  being  ornamented.  The  improper  use  of  this  figure  is 
admirably  ridiculed  and  exemplified  by  Churchill  in  his  following 
well-known  and  remarkable  verse : 

"  And  apt  alliteration's  artful  aid." 

Shakspeare  has  also  given  some  admirable  specimens  of  mock 
alliterative  metre.     Thus,  the  following  on  Cardinal  Wolsey : 

"  Begot  by  butchers,  and  by  butchers  bred, 
How  high  his  highness  holds  his  haughty  head." 

Again  in  his  burlesque  tragedy  of  Pyramus  and  Thisbe: 

"  With  blade,  with  bloody,  blameful  blade, 

He  bravely  broached  his  boiling  bloody  breast." 

Also  in  his  "Ercles'  Vein,"  as  he  phrases  it: 

"  The  raging  rocks. 
With  shivering  shocks, 
Shall  break  the  locks 

Of  prison-gates ; 
And  Phibbus'  car 
Shall  shine  from  far. 
And  make  and  mar 

The  foolish  fates." 

And  in  his  touching  allusion  to  the  melancholy  lot  of  those 
who,  while  diifusing  the  rays  of  science  and  literature  throaghout 
the  world,  have  been  struck  with  blindness : 


¥ 


THE   ALLITERATION.  285 

"  Light  seeking  light, 
Hath  light  of  light  beguiled,'* 

lie  aftbrds  a  good  s[)ecimen  of  this  figure  and  of  his  play  of  words. 
We  add  the  following  specimen  of  an  amusing  and  alliterative 
Title  to  a  Book  of  Extracts  from  several  authors : 

Astonishing  Anthology  from  Attractive  Authors. 

Broken  Bits  from  Big  Men's  Brains. 

Choice  Chips  from  Chaucer  to  Canning. 

Dainty  Devices  from  Diverse  Directions. 

Eggs  of  Eloquence  from  Eminent  Essayists. 

Fragrant  Flowers  from  Fields  of  Fancy. 

Gems  of  Genius  Gloriously  Garnished. 

Handy  Helps  from  Head  and  Heart. 

Illustrious  Intellects  Impertinently  Interpreted. 

Jewels  of  Judgment  and  Jests  of  Jocularity. 

Kindling  to  Keep  from  the  King  to  the  Kitchen. 

Loosened  Leaves  from  Literary  Laurels. 

Magnificent  Morsels  from  Mighty  Minds. 

l>ilumerous  Nuggets  from  Notable  Noodles. 

Oracular  Opinions  OflSciously  Offered. 

Prodigious  Points  from  Powerful  Pens. 

Quirks  and  Quibbles  from  Queer  Quarters. 

Bare  Kemarks  Eidiculously  Kepeated. 

Suggestive  Squirts  from  Several  Sources. 

Tremendous  Thoughts  on  Thundering  Topics. 

Utterances  of  the  Uppermost  Use  and  Unction., 

Valuable  Views  in  Various  Voices. 

Wisps  of  Wit  in  a  Wilderness  of  Words. 

Xcellent  Xtracts  Xactly  Xpressed. 

Yawnings  and  Yearnings  for  Youthful  Yachtsmen. 

Zeal  and  Zest  from  Zoroaster  to  Zimmerman. 


LESSON    CXXI. 

CORRECTION   OF   FAULTY   METAPHORICAL   LANGUAGE. 

In  an  excited  state  of  mind,  as  far  as  we  can  command 
metaphorical  language,  we  unavoidably  use  it  whenever 
we  try  to  communicate  our  emotions  to  others ;  such  lan- 
guage suggesting  itself  as  the  natural  interpreter  between 


286  FAULTY    METAPHORICAL   LANGUAGE. 

soul  and  soul.  On  the  other  hand,  the  labored  use  of  such 
language  in  an  opposite  state  of  the  mind,  is  an  evidence 
of  bad  taste ;  and  it  would  contribute  to  the  growth  of 
such  taste,  were  the  pupil  set  to  exercise  his  fancy  in  deco- 
rating plain  sentences  with  metaphors,  similes,  and  the 
other  related  tropes.  There  will  be  no  tendency  of  this 
kind,  if,  instead  of  constructing  metaphorical  expressions 
before  occasions  arise  for  them,  he  prepare  his  judgment 
and  taste  for  using  them  properly  when  occasions  do  arise, 
by  correcting  instances  of  faulty  metaphorical  language ; 
which  instances  will  be  of  three  kinds ;  namely,  such  as 
err  by  vulgar  or  by  conceited  tropes  when  the  occasion 
requires  a  plain  style ;  such  as  err  by  dropping  into  plain 
expressions,  when  the  figure  once  begun  should  have  been 
maintained  ;  and  such  as  err  by  mingling  figures  that  are 
inconsistent  with  each  other.  The  following  are  instances 
of  each  kind. 

"  The  enterprise  was  knocked  at  head  by  the  rashness  of  the  agents." 

The  figure,  Tcnoclced  at  Jiead^  is  rather  vulgar;  so  that,  if  the 
style  is  meant  to  be,  in  any  degree,  raised  above  the  merely  collo- 
quial, it  will  be  better  to  say,  hr ought  to  nothing^  or  ruined^  or 
put  to  an  end. 

*'  Let  the  bark  of  my  humble  request  float  into  the  harbor  of  your  heart, 
and  find  anchorage  in  the  gentle  sea  of  your  kindness." 

Any  thing  of  this  kind,  in  the  modern  intercourse  of  life,  is  far 
too  oriental,  or  too  affected,  for  the  end  in  view,  which  will  be 
better  attained  by  more  simple  language ;  for  example,  "  Admit 
my  bumble  request,  and  entertain  it  with  kindness." 

"  He  was  all  on  fire  with  passion,  but  he  soon  became  collected." 

The  metaphor  with  which  this  sentence  begins  is  natural  enough 
in  itself,  but  the  speaker  or  writer  does  not  use  it  naturally,  other- 
wise he  would  not,  in  the  second  member,  have  employed  the 
plain  word  collected,  which  has  nothing  to  do  with  being  on  fire^ 
but  would  have  been  forced  to  say  cool,  or  something  to  the  same 
purpose. 


FAULTY  METAPHORICAL  LANGUAGE.        287 

We  have  said  that  he  does  not  use  the  metaphor  naturally; 
that  is  to  say,  in  using  the  word  fire  he  does  not  imagine  the 
thing,  but  has  before  his  mind  only  the  plain  fact,  namely,  a  man 
excited ;  nor  will  any  defect  be  perceived  by  the  hearer,  if  he  uii 
derstands  the  former  part  of  the  sentence  in  the  same  prosaic 
way.  Words  cease,  in  this  manner,  to  be  figurative,  which  ori- 
ginally are  so ;  we  use  them  with  the  same  efiect  as  the  plain 
words  whose  place  they  take. 

Probably  few  persons  will  perceive  a  defect  in  one  of  the  ex- 
amples which  follow  for  exercise :  "He  chatters  senselessly,  like 
an  ass,  as  he  is ;"  because  we  are  so  much  in  the  habit  of  hearing 
the  word  ass  used  for  fool^  that  the  figure  which  went  with  that 
application  at  first,  is,  with  most  people,  now  lost.  Revive  the 
figure  in  the  mind,  and  its  inconsistency  with  the  former  member 
of  the  sentence  will  at  once  be  evident ;  for  an  ass  does  not  chat- 
ter, though  a  magpie  may.  If  magpie  does  not  suit  the  purpose, 
let  the  sentence  be  plain  throughout  by  using /(?<??. 

'  He  was  on  all  on  fire  with  passion,  but  he  soon  became  sober." 

The  metaphor  in  the  latter  member  is  unnatural,  not  by  being 
wrong  in  itself,  but  because  it  would  not  be  used  by  one  who  had 
naturally  employed  the  metaphor  in  the  former  member.  But  if 
the  speaker  had  said  in  the  former  member,  '^  He  was  quite  drunk 
with  passion,"  the  latter  member  would  follow  with  perfect  con- 
sistency. 


LESSON   CXXII. 

EXERCISES    ON    METAPHORICAL   LANGUAGE. 

According  to  instructions  in  all  the  previous  lessons  on 
style  and  on  figurative  language,  improve  the  style  of  the 
following  passages :  either  by  reducing  metaphorical  into 
plainer  language,  or  by  removing  inconsistencies,  inele- 
gancies,  and  vulgarisms. 

1.  He  was  very  dexterous  in  smelling  out  the  views  and  designs  of 
others.  2.  If  you  do  not  mollify  my  vengeance  by  the  oil  of  humility  and 
prayer,  it  will  reach  you  with  unmitigated  hardness  and  severity.    3.  Ilia 


288  EXERCISES   ON   METAPHORICAL   LANGUAGE. 

injury  stands  before  his  heart,  as  a  jailer  at  the  gate  of  a  dungeon,  and 
prevents  his  pity  from  coming  forth.  4.  Since  the  vessel  of  thy  unbounded 
ambition  was  wrecked  in  the  gulf  of  thy  self-love,  it  is  proper  that  thou 
take  in  the  sails  of  thy  temerity,  and  cast  the  anchor  of  repentance  in  the 
port  of  sincerity  and  justice,  which  is  the  port  of  safety.  5.  He  flew  along 
the  course  with  legs  that  outstripped  the  wind. 

6.  Having  steered  clear  of  that  difficulty,  our  horses  soon  brought  us  to 
the  end  of  our  journey.  7.  No  human  happiness  is  so  serene  as  not  to 
contain  some  alloy.  8.  I  cannot  see  my  way  ably  in  this  important  enter- 
prise. 9.  I  cannot  use  my  powers  clearly  in  this  important  enterprise. 
10.  How  comfortable  is  the  calm  that  comes  over  the  soul  in  the  quiet  of  a 
summer's  eve  !  11.  How  soothing  are  the  domestic  arrangements  of  a 
winter's  fireside  in  an  amiable  family  !  12.  There  is  a  time  when  foctions, 
by  the  vehemence  of  their  fermentation,  stun  and  disable  one  another. 
13.  His  generosity  was  too  great  to  be  cooled  by  these  prudential  consider- 
ations. 14.  Hope,  the  balm  of  life,  darts  a  ray  of  light  through  the  thick- 
est gloom. 

15.  Men  who  are  rich  and  avaricious,  lose  themselves  in  a  spring  which 
might  have  cherished  all  around  them.  16.  It  is  not  from  this  world 
that  any  source  of  comfort  can  arise,  to  cheer  the  gloom  of  the  last  hour. 
17.  The  warmth  of  my  affection  is  such  that  time  cannot  set  it  aside.  18. 
He  was  a  sword  to  his  foes,  and  a  defender  of  his  friends.  19.  His  learn- 
ing illuminates  all  he  says,  and  removes  the  unintelligibility  from  every 
subject  he  treats.  20.  What  a  cold  heart  she  has  !  It  nullifies  me  when- 
ever I  approach  her. 

21.  An  idle  person  placed  in  the  midst  of  so  many  active,  bustling 
people,  seems  a  petrifaction.  22.  Give  me  a  resting-place  for  my  fulcrum, 
and  I  will  make  an  alteration  in  the  globe.  23.  He  chatters  senselessly, 
like  an  ass,  as  he  is.  24.  Laws  are  not  intended  to  control  the  good,  but 
to  apply  to  the  bad.  25.  If  you  smile  on  me,  I  care  not  for  the  opposition 
of  the  rest  of  mankind.  26.  Liberality,  like  the  sun,  spreads  relief  on  all 
around.  27.  Mercy  is  the  brightest  jewel  that  sovereigns  can  exercise. 
28.  Old  father  Thames  is  a  very  pleasant-looking  river  at  this  point. 

29.  The  true  motives  of  our  actions,  like  the  real  pipes  of  an  organ,  are 
usually  concealed,  while  we  place  in  the  front,  for  show,  the  deceiving  and 
plausible  pretexts.  30.  Let  us  be  attentive  to  keep  our  mouths  as  with  a 
bridle,  and  to  steer  our  vessel  aright,  that  we  may  avoid  the  rocks  and 
shoals  which  lie  everywhere  around  us.  31.  I  bridle  in  my  struggling 
muse  with  difficulty,  who  longs  to  launch  into  a  bolder  strain.  32.  Eras-  ' 
mus  curbed  the  wild  torrent  of  a  barbarous  age.  33.  The  good  man  has 
his  clouds  that  intervene  ;  clouds  that  may  dim  his  sublunary  day,  but 
cannot  conquer.  34.  Since  the  time  that  reason  began  to  bud,  and  put 
forth  her  shoots,  thought,  during  our  waking  hours,  has  been  active  in 
every  breast,  without  a  moment's  suspension  or  pause.  The  current  ol 
ideas  has  been  always  moving.  The  wheels  of  the  spiritual  engine  have 
exerted  themselves  with  perpetual  motion. 


ORIGINAL   COMPOSITION.  280 

-SS.  What  an  anchor  is  to  a  ship  in  a  dark  ni^ht  on  an  unknown  coast, 
and  amidst  a  boisterous  ocean,  Christian  hope  is  to  the  soul  when  beset 
by  the  confusions  of  the  world.  In  danger,  it  gives  consolation ;  amidst 
general  fluctuation,  it  affords  one  fixed  point  of  enjoyment. 

36,  Can  the  stream  continue  to  advance,  when  it  is  deprived  of  the 
fountain?  Can  the  branch  improve,  when  taken  from  the  stock  which 
gave  it  nourishment?  No  more  can  dependent  spirits  be  happy  w'hen 
they  are  no  longer  in  communion  with  the  Father  of  spirits,  and  the  Foun- 
tain of  happiness. 

37.  The  man  who  has  no  rule  over  his  own  spirit,  possesses  no  antidote 
against  poisons  of  any  sort.  He  lies  open  to  every  insurrection  of  ill- 
humor,  and  every  gale  of  distress.  Not  so  with  the  man  who  is  employed 
in  regulating  his  mind.  Such  a  one  is  making  provision  against  all  the 
accidents  of  life.  He  is  erecting  a  fortress,  into  which,  in  the  day  of  eor- 
K)w,  he  can  retreat  with  satisfaction. 


ORIGINAL  PROSE  COMPOSITION. 


The  preceding  lessons,  embracing  so  large  a  variety  of  pre- 
scribed practice  on  sentences,  the  constituent  parts  of  every 
composition,  and  on  style  and  figurative  language,  have  pre- 
pared the  way  for  prosecuting  successfully  the  various  forms 
of  prose  composition  which  are  to  be  exhibited  in  the  present 
pai-t  of  the  work ;  but  it  may  be  useful  to  set  forth  some 
additional  preparatory  methods,  which  have  been  suggested 
by  experienced  writers  and  teachers,  for  securing  facility 
and  accuracy  in  original  composition. 

The  subject  on  which  the  student  is  required  to  write,  should 
be  one  of  which  he  has  some  knowledge,  and  in  which  he  feels,  or 
may  be  brought  to  feel,  some  interest.  If  needful,  let  some  infor- 
mation respecting  it  be  imparted  to  him  in  conversation ;  let  in- 
quiries be  proposed  and  answers  requested,  so  that  the  mind  of  the 
student  may  be  excited  to  think  upon  it  with  somewhat  of  readi- 
ness and  clearness. 

Young  pupils  might  be  required  to  write  about  objects  in  the 
6chool-room,  or  scenes  with  which  they  are  familiar,  and  to  ex- 

13 


290  EXERCISES   IN   ORIGINAL   COMPOSITION. 

press  tlieir  opinions  upon  wh^t  they  have  seen  and  heard,  and 
about  which  it  would  not  be  difficult  for  them  to  hold  intelligent 
conversation. 

Dr.  Todd  has  well  advised,  in  the  selection  of  a  subject,  to  take 
one  that  is  common  and  simple  : 

"  Some  have  an  idea,"  says  he,  "  that  it  is  easier  and  every  way  better 
to  select  out-of-the-way  subjects,  and  import  all  their  thoughts  from  a 
long  distance ;  but  this  is  too  expensive.  If  we  rear  a  house,  we  take  the 
stone  and  the  timber  which  are  nearest  and  easiest  to  come  at.  We  build 
our  factories  near  the  waterfall,  and  carry  the  water  as  short  a  distance  as 
we  can.  Do  not  try  to  see  what  new,  uncommon  words  and  thoughts  you 
can  obtain.  Express  your  thoughts  in  clear,  simple  language,  and,  if  you 
can,  eloquently.  Common  things  become  beautiful  when  expressed  with 
elegance.  Dean  Swift  once  wrote  a  composition  upon  a  broomstick,  and 
found  no  lack  of  materials  or  of  interest ;  and  we  all  know  how  charmingly 
Cowpor  has  sung  the  sofa." 


LESSON    GXXIII. 

ELEMENTARY   EXERCISES   IN   ORIGINAL   COMPOSITION. 

1.  Enumerate  all  the  parts  of  your  own  dwelling-house  and 
out-houses,  also  of  your  school-edifice  and  surroundings.  Enu- 
merate also  the  articles  which  they  contain. 

2.  Enumerate  all  the  parts  of  other  objects,  viz. :  of  a  tree,  of  a 
bush,  of  a  horse,  of  a  cow,  sheep,  dog,  cat ;  of  a  map,  book,  clock, 
watch,  &c. 

3.  Enumerate  all  the  qualities  and  the  uses  of  various  objects : 
such  as  iron,  copper,  tin,  leather,  snow,  ice,  cotton,  wax,  wool, 
chalk,  paper,  pen,  ink,  penknife,  inkstand,  &c. 

4.  Enumerate  the  parts^  properties^  qualities^  and  uses  of  the 
following  objects :  the  hand,  the  arm,  the  foot,  the  eye,  the  ear, 
the  mouth,  the  nose,  the  face,  a  wagon,  a  sleigh,  a  spade,  a  but- 
ton, a  kite,  &o. 

5.  No  form  of  composition  is  more  useful  or  suitable  for  begin- 
ners, nor  more  easy  of  execution,  than  letter-writing.  The  earlier 
letters  may  be  employed  in  giving  to  parents,  or  some  other  rela- 
tives, or  to  some  friend,  an  account  of  school- duties — pleasures, 


PLANS  FOR  ORIGINAL  COMPOSITION.  291 

advantages,  restraints,  grievances,  difficulties,  studies,  temptations, 
dangers,  hopes,  fears,  &c.  These  will  furnish  topics  for  several 
letters. 

The  subject  of  letter- writing  will  hereafter  be  more  full^  pre- 
sented. 


LESSON  CXXIV. 

VARIOUS   KINDS   OF   EXERCISE  IN    ORIGINAL   COMPOSITION. 

The  following  plans  for  introductory  practice  in  original 
composition,  are  recommended  for  adoption ; 

1.  The  preparing  of  written  reports  of  conversations  held  with 
friends^  of  scientific  or  literary  information  given  hy  the  teacher^ 
of  lectures^  and  of  sermons^  would  have  a  most  important  effect, 
and  exert  a  most  direct  influence  in  making  ready  writers.  It  is 
not  here  recommended  that  such  report  shall  be  made  at  the  time 
of  hearing  what  has  been  referred  to,  but  afterwards,  from 
memory. 

2.  As  preliminary  to  this,  the  practice  of  Jceeping  a  daily  jour- 
nal of  events  interesting  to  the  writer,  is  especially  to  be  recom- 
mended as  one  of  the  happiest  and  easiest  expedients  of  training  a 
person  to  the  use  of  the  pen  in  the  communication  of  thought. 

Chiefly  by  pursuing  this  course,  and  also  by  recording  her  recollections 
of  sermons  and  lectures,  which  she  had  heard  in  the  course  of  two  or  three 
years,  a  young  lady,  under  the  writer's  instruction,  had  acquired  a  most 
skilful  use  of  the  pen,  not  only  in  reference  to  accurate  and  full  reports  of 
sermons  or  lectures,  but  in  the  preparing  of  ordinary  compositions,  and 
in  epistolary  correspondence.  It  is  frequency  of  writing,  such  as  the  keep- 
ing of  a  daily  journal  implies,  that  insures  readiness  and  excellence. 

3.  With  the  more  advanced  pupils  in  a  school,  it  would  be  found 
a  most  advantageous  practice  to  set  apart^  on  three  or  four  succes- 
sive days  of  the  week,  one  half -hour  ^  in  school^  for  writing  on  an 
appropriate  subject^  given  out  hy  the  teacher  at  the  time — the  pupil 
having  no  access  to  books,  or  opportunity  for  conversation,  but 
being  obhged  to  apply  the  mind  with  energy  to  the  task  in  hand. 

4.  As  introductory  to  the  successful  accomplishment  of  this 


292  CHANGE   OF   POETRY   INTO   PROSE. 

scheme,  it  might  be  well  to  lead  them  first  to  the  habit  of  making 
out,  at  such  times,  a  written  report  of  some  story  or  narrative  read 
or  spoken  by  the  teacher. 

Such  exercises  should  afterwards  be  reviewed,  corrected,  rewrit- 
tec,  and  handed  in  to  the  teacher  for  examination  and  criticism. 

Simplicity  and  naturalness  of  style  in  such  writings  should  be 
studiously  encouraged. 

5.  A  still  more  simple  method  of  securing  the  last-named  pur- 
pose (as  exemplified  in  a  former  lesson),  would  be  to  give  out  to  a 
class  from  three  to  ten  detached  words^  that  as  many  sentences 
may  he  framed^  each  of  which  should  contain  one  of  these  words. 
Afterwards,  the  task  may  be  assigned  of  incorporating  the  en- 
tire number  of  words  into  one  sentence^  so  as,  at  the  same  time,  to 
make  good  sense. 

This  being  done,  the  written  exercises  of  each  pupil  may  ad- 
vantageously be  read  before  the  class,  and  the  criticism  of  the 
class  elicited  upon  each ;  not  giving,  however,  the  name  of  the 
writer,  or  subjecting  any  individual  to  ridicule  for  errors  discov- 
ered. 


LESSON  CXXV. 

CHANGE  OF  POETRY  INTO  PROSE. 

Much  advantage  would  be  given,  in  learning  the  art  oi 
composition,  by  the  frequent  practice  of  converting  poetry 
into  good^  regular  prose,  without  altering  the  sentiment  or 
meaning.  It  may  be  required  to  present  it  in  as  nearly  the 
same  words  as  the  prose  style  will  admit ;  and  then,  again, 
to  give  the  utmost  freedom  as  to  the  words  employed,  pro- 
vided the  same  meaning  shall  be  preserved. 

This  would  be  attended  with  the  advantage  of  imparting  not 
only  a  command  of  language,  but  also  skill  in  tracing  the  differ- 
ence between  poetic  words  and  poetic  arrangement,  as  contradis- 
tinguished from  those  befitting  prose.  It  would  also  lead  the  way 
to  the  writing  of  poetry,  where  a  talent  for  this  form  of  writing 
may  exist. 


CHANGE    OF   POETRY    INTO   PROSE.  298 

The  following  may  serve  as  a  specimen  of  the  exercise  now 
recommended.  The  exercises  of  the  various  members  of  the  class 
might  profitably  be  read  aloud  successively,  sentence  by  sentence, 
and  compared. 

"  He  scarce  had  ceased,  when  the  superior  Fiend 
Was  moving  toward  the  shore  ;  his  pond'rous  shield, 
Ethereal  temper,  massy,  large,  and  round, 
Behind  him  cast ;  the  broad  circumference 
Hung  on  his  shoulders  like  the  moon,  whose  orb 
Through  optic-glass  the  Tuscan  artist  views 
At  evening  from  the  top  of  Fesole, 
Or  in  Valdarno,  to  descry  new  lands, 
Rivers,  or  mountains,  in  her  spotty  globe. 
His  spear,  to  equal  which  the  tallest  pine 
Hewn  on  Norwegian  hills,  to  be  the  mast 
Of  some  great  admiral,  were  but  a  wand, 
He  walk'd  with,  to  support  uneasy  steps 
Over  the  burning  marl,  not  like  those  steps 
On  Heaven's  azure,  and  the  torrid  clime 
Smote  on  him  sore  besides,  vaulted  with  fire ; 
Nathless  he  so  endured,  till  on  the  beach 
Of  that  inflamed  sea  he  stood,  and  call'd 
His  legions,  angel-forms,  who  lay  entranced, 
Thick  as  autumnal  leaves  that  strow  the  brooks 
In  Valombrosa,  where  th'  Etrurian  shades 
High  over-arch'd  imbower ;  or  scatter'd  sedge 
Afloat,  when  with  fierce  winds  Orion  arm'd 
Hath  vex'd  the  Red  Sea  coast,  whose  waves  o'erthrew 
Busiris  and  his  Memphian  chivalry, 
While  with  perfidious  hatred  they  pursued 
The  sojourners  of  Goshen,  who  beheld 
From  the  safe  shore  their  floating  carcasses 
And  broken  chariot-wheels  ;  so  thick  bestrown, 
Abject  and  lost,  lay  these,  covering  the  flood. 
Under  amazement  of  their  hideous  change. 
He  call'd  so  loud,  that  all  the  hollow  deep 
Of  Hell  resounded,"  &c. 

The  above  is  thus  presented  in  the  prosaic  form  : 

*'  He  had  scarce  done  speaking  when  the  superior  fiend,  Satan,  wafi 
bloving  towards  the  shore;  his  heavy  shield  of  heavenly  workmanship, 
massy,  large,  and  round,  was  cast  behind  him;  the  broad  compass  of  it 
hung  on  his  shoulders  like  the  moon,  whose  orb  the  Tuscan  artist  viows 
through  optic-glasses  in  an  evening,  from  the  top  of  Fesole,  or  else  in  Val- 
darno, to  discover  mountains,  rivers,  or  new  lands  :)n  her  globe  ;  the  tall- 


294  CHANGE   OF   POETRY   INTO   PROSE. 

est  piue  hewn  on  the  mountains  of  Norway,  to  be  a  mast  for  the  ship  of 
some  great  admiral,  were  but  little  in  comparison  of  his  spear,  witii  whicli 
he  walked,  to  support  his  uneasy  steps  over  the  burning  sulphur  (not  like 
his  former  steps  in  heaven),  and  the  heat  of  hell  smote  on  him  sore  be- 
sides, for  it  was  surrounded  and  covered  with  fire  ;  nevertheless,  he  en- 
dured it,  until  he  came  to  the  brink  of  the  inflamed  sea,  where  he  stood, 
and  called  his  legions,  angelic  forms,  who  lay  entranced  and  confounded 
with  their  fall,  as  thick  as  leaves  in  autumn,  that  fall  into  the  brooks  in 
Valombrosa,  where  the  trees  cover  over  and  shade  the  stream;  or  like 
scattered  sedge  afloat,  when  Orion,  attended  with  boisterous  winds,  hath 
vexed  the  coast  of  the  Red  Sea,  whose  waves  overthrew  Busiris,  and  his 
Memphian  horsemen  and  chariots,  while  with  treacherous  hatred  they  pur- 
sued the  Israelites,  who,  from  the  safe  shore  beheld  their  carcasses  floating, 
and  their  broken  chariot-wheels  ;  so  thick  lay  these,  abject  and  lost,  in  a 
manner  covering  the  flood,  and  in  the  utmost  consternation  and  amazement 
at  their  hideous  and  unhappy  change.  Satan  called  so  loud  that  his  voice 
resounded  through  all  the  hollow  deep  of  hell. 

The  plan  recommended  by  Mr.  Joseph  Emerson,  is  this :  In  the 
first  place,  read  over  the  piece' you  intend  to  transpose,  in  order  to 
imbibe  the  general  spirit  of  it.  Then  begin  with  the  first  sentence, 
and  ascertain  the  meaning  of  every  word  and  phrase,  as  exactly  as 
possible.  If  it  consist  of  members,  see  if  they  cannot  be  transposed 
to  advantage.  After  deciding  upon  the  member  of  the  sentence 
with  which  to  begin,  think  how  it  can  be  expressed  in  the  most 
easy,  familiar,  and  intelhgible  prose.  You  will  sometimes  find  it 
necessary  to  use  twice  as  many  words  as  your  author,  in  order  to 
express  the  same  ideas ;  and  you  may  now  and  then  intersperse  an 
idea  of  your  own,  when  you  can  do  it  with  perfect  ease.  In  this 
manner  you  may  proceed,  till  you  have  furnished  twenty  or  thirty 
lines,  which  will  be  enough  for  one  exercise.  Figurative  language 
may  be  retained  or  not,  just  as  is  most  convenient;  but  always 
endeavor  to  bo  consistent  with  yourself  in  this  particular. 

As  an  illustration,  he  has  selected  and  transposed  the  following 
lines  from  the  Night  Thoughts,  near  the  middle  of  the  Relapse, 
Night  v.: 

Our  funeral  tears  from  different  causes  rise : 
As  if  from  separate  cisterns  in  the  soul. 
Of  various  kinds  they  flow.     From  tender  hearts, 
By  soft  contagion  call'd,  some  burst  at  once, 
And  stream  obsequious  to  the  leading  eye. 
Some  ask  more  time,  by  curious  art  distill'd. 
Some  hearts  in  secret  hard  unapt  to  melt, 


IMPROVING   OLD   AUTHORS.  295 

Struck  by  the  magic  of  the  public  eye, 

Like  Moses'  smitten  rock,  gush  out  amain. 

Some  weep  to  share  the  fame  of  the  deceased, 

So  high  in  merit,  and  to  them  so  dear : 

They  dwell  on  praises  wiiich  they  think  they  share ; 

And  thus,  without  a  blush,  commend  themselves. 

Transposed,  the  passage  may  read  thus : 

Though  tears  are  generally  considered  as  an  expression  of  sorrow,  ye^ 
tlicy  are  extremely  diverse,  especially  those  shed  at  funerals,  and  flow 
from  a  variety  of  causes.  Some  are  possessed  of  hearts  so  feeling,  and  sym- 
pathetic, that  they  cannot  cease  for  a  moment  to  weep  with  them  that 
weep.  Some  whose  emotions  are  less  vigorous,  require  more  time  to  work 
themselves  up  into  a  weeping  frame,  and  thus  show  their  condolence  by 
their  tears.  Some  who  in  secret  will  not  heave  a  single  sigh  at  the  woes 
of  a  brother,  will  weep  in  public  lest  the  world  should  think  them  desti- 
•.ute  of  natural  affection.  [  *'  Like  Moses'  smitten  rock,"  is  a  comparison 
I  dislike.]  Some  weep  in  order  to  participate  the  praises  of  the  dead,  to 
show  that  they  were  the  friends,  to  imply  that  they  were  the  beloved  of 
the  wise  and  honorable.  They  dwell  with  enthusiasm  on  those  qualities 
of  which  they  suppose  themselves  possessed  in  common  with  the  deceased, 
and  in  this  way  have  the  impudence  to  commend  themselves  without  a 
single  blush. 


LESSON   CXXVI. 

IMPROVING  THE   STYLE    OF    OLD   AUTHORS — AND  ABRIDGING 
MODERN    AUTHORS. 

Let  a  half  page  or  more  of  some  good  writer  of  the  sev- 
enteenth century,  such  as  Barrow,  be  selected,  abounding 
in  parentheses,  and  in  ill-arranged  sentences  or  clauses,  and 
let  the  same  matter  be  presented,  according  to  the  rules 
given  in  the  previous  portions  of  this  work,  in  as  good  a 
style  as  the  student  may  be  able  to  command. 

This  task  will  give  exercise  to  judgment  and  taste.  It  will 
make  him  acquainted  with  the  changes  for  the  better  which  our 
language  and  literature  have  undergone  within  two  centuries 
past,  and  it  will  habituate  him  to  such  a  style  as  would  give  satis- 
faction at  the  present  day. 


296  TRANSLA'nONS   AND  PARAPHKASE. 

This  exercise  wonld  be  still  more  usefnl,  if  the  stndent  were  re- 
quired to  append  his  criticism  upon  the  departures  from  approved 
mles,  which  he  had  noticed  in  the  author  quoted,  or  upon  the  ex- 
cellencies of  style  or  thought  which  he  had  discovered. 

To  the  last  exercises  may  be  added  frequent  experiments 
m  abridging  pages  of  some  of  the  best  writings  of  our  oto7i 
age^  some  of  the  pages  of  Irving,  Bancroft,  Prescott,  Ev 
erett,  and  others,  preserving  only  the  most  important  facts 
and  circumstances,  and  connecting  them  together  in  as 
happy  a  manner  as  possible. 

The  more  capable  students  might  also  add  such  analyses  of  the 
original  passage,  and  literary  criticisms  upon  the  beauties  or 
faults  therein  found,  as  their  own  knowledge  of  rhetorical  rules 
and  their  taste  might  suggest. 


LESSON    CXXVII. 

TRANSLATIONS    AND   PARAPHRASE. 

1.  The  practice  of  frequently  translating  Latin,  Greek, 
French,  German,  or  Italian  passages  into  good,  idio- 
matic, and  expressive  English,  would  be  attended  with  the 
double  advantage  of  imparting  a  more  full  and  accurate 
acquaintance  with  the  foreign  language  and  a  more  com- 
plete command  of  our  own. 

Sir  Walter  Scott,  in  writing  to  his  son,  observes  :  "  You  should 
exercise  yourself  frequently  in  trying  to  make  translations  of  the 
passages  which  most  strike  you,  trying  to  invest  the  sense  of 
Tacitus  in  as  good  English  as  you  can.  This  will  answer  the 
double  purpose  of  making  yourself  familiar  with  the  Latin  author, 
and  giving  you  the  command  of  your  own  language,  ^A?'cA  7i(? 
person  will  ever  have,  who  does  not  study  English  Composition  in 
early  life^ 

2.  The  task  oi  paraphrasing  a  sentence  or  a  paragraph 
will  be  found  a  help  in  preparing  to  write  on  general  su)> 


PARAPHRASE.  297 

jeots.  It  consists  in  expanding  the  thought  or  thoughts^ 
presented,  expressing  them  in  clearer  terms,  and  holding 
them  up  in  various  lights,  and  occasionally,  in  illustrating 
them  by  a  reference  to  experience  or  to  history. 

The  Bible  furnishes  an  inexhaustible  supply  of  the  best  passages 
for  such  a  form  of  composition.  The  following  example  shows 
how  the  exercise  is,  in  general,  to  be  conducted  : 

"  Answer  not  a  fool  according  to  his  folly,  lest  thou  also  be  like  unto  him ; 
answer  a  fool  according  to  his  folly,  lest  he  be  wise  in  his  own  conceit." 

This  paradox  has  been  well  explained,  thus : 

"  The/oo?  is  one  who  does  not  make  a  proper  use  of  his  reason.  When 
he  speaks  In  the  folly  of  passion^  answer  him  not  with  folly,  but  give  a 
*  soft  answer,  which  turneth  away  wrath.' 

"  Answer  not  the  folly  of  mere  talJcati'veness  with  similar  folly.  Per- 
petual prating  about  nothing  may  often  be  put  down  by  a  dead  silence. 
Answer  not  the  folly  of  imreasonableness,  false  argument^  or  prejudice^  by 
like  folly  ;  but  '  prove  all  things,  and  hold  fast  that  which  is  good.' 

*'  Answer  not  the  folly  of  pro/aneness  by  folly  like  his  own,  but  by 
marked  silence,  or  well-timed  reproof. 

"Answer  not  the  folly  of  Tnalignity^  with  like  folly.  *  There  is  that 
which  speaketh  like  the  piercings  of  a  sword ;  but  the  tongue  of  the  wise 
is  as  a  healing  medicine.  In  the  mouth  of  the  foolish  there  is  a  rod  of 
pride ;  but  the  lips  of  the  wise  shall  preserve  them.' 

''  Answer  not  the  folly  of  peevishness  according  to  its  folly,  but  pity,  for- 
bear, and  forgive ;  and 

'The  tear  that  is  wiped  with  a  little  address, 
May  be  follow'd,  perhaps,  witii  a  smile.* 

'*  Answer  not  the  folly  of  captiousness  with  similar  folly.  Be  not  dis- 
pleased when  you  are  contradicted ;  above  all,  do  not  wait  for  an  oppor- 
tunity of  contradicting  in  your  turn,  to  pay  off  the  supposed  affront. 

"  Answer  not  the  folly  oi  flattery  according  to  itself,  but  turn  to  it  o 
deaf  ear,  a  disgusted  heart ;  for  he  that  flattereth  his  neighbor,  spreadeth 
a  net  for  his  feet.     Flattery  cherishes  pride,  self-love,  and  self-ignorance. 

"  But  '  answer  a  fool  according  to  his  folly,  lest  he  be  wise  in  his  own 
conceit;'  that  is,  answer  him  so  as  to  refute  him  on  his  own  false  prin- 
ciples, lest  his  being  left  without  an  answer,  should  lead  him  to  suppose 
that  his  folly  is  unanswerable,  and  so  confirm  him  in  his  mistake.  Answei 
him,  if  he  fancies  himself  right  when  he  is  clearly  in  the  wrong,  if  possible 
to  prevent  him  deluding  others. 

18* 


298  SOURCES   OF   ILLUSTRATIOK. 


LESSON  CXXVIII. 

SOURCES     OF    ILLUSTRATION. 

The  following  sources  of  illustration  may  be  resorted  to ; 

(1.)  Simile  and  Metaphor, — These  may  be  sought  in  the  Bible 
and  other  books. 

(2.)  Proverbs  and  Wise  sayings. — Not  only  Solomon's  Book  of 
Proverbs,  but  the  '^  Proverbial  Philosophy"  of  Tupper,  Trench's 
*' Lessons  in  Proverbs,"  Bohn's  "  Handbook  of  Proverbs,"  and  the 
biographies  of  vrise  and  good  men  will  furnish  material. 

(3.)  The  events  of  Daily  Life. — A  battle,  a  shipwreck,  a  rail- 
way accident,  a  noble  action,  a  base  deed — any  occurrence  may 
be  employed  to  illustrate  some  truth. 

(4.)  History  and  Biography. — The  historical  and  biographical 
portions  of  sacred  Scripture  alone  are  peculiarly  rich  in  material 
for  the  illustration  of  every  moral  and  religious  subject :  but  to 
these  other  histories  and  biographies  will  contribute  a  large  addi- 
tion. 

Here  it  occurs  to  the  author,  to  recommend  to  the  young  to 
begin  at  once  the  practice  of  inserting  in  a  Common-place  Book, 
under  appropriate  heads,  such  historical  and  biographical  inci- 
dents as  may  be  met  with  in  the  course  of  daily  reading ;  or  at 
least  to  enter  references  to  the  book  and  page  in  which  such 
topics  are  illustrated. 

(5.)  Manners  and  Customs  afford  endless  illustrations. 


LESSON  GXXIX. 

ADDITIONAL   SOURCES    OF   ILLUSTRATION. 

1.  The  Physical  Sciences  are  a  copious  source  of  illus- 
tration, on  every  subject.  In  writing,  therefore,  it  will  be 
well  to  reflect  what  illustrations  of  any  given  topic  we  may 
derive  from  Zoology,  from  Botany,  Physiology,  Astrono- 
my, Natural  Philosophy,  Physical  Geography,  and  Chemis- 


SOTTROES   OF  ILLITSTRATION.  290 

try.    From  Mr.  Groser's  little  work  oh  "  Illustrative  Teach- 
ing," the  following  appropriate  illustrations  are  drawn : 

The  duty  of  a  firm,  immovable  adherence  to  the  truth  is  thus 
illustrated  from  Zoology : 

"  Let  us  take  a  walk  on  the  sea-shore.  Do  you  see  that  round,  pointed 
pyramid  of  shell,  resting  on  yonder  rock  ?  That  is  the  house  of  the  lim- 
pet ;  the  animal  is  inside.  Try  to  lift  up  the  shell.  In  vain — you  cannot 
move  it.  Use  all  your  force ;  it  is  of  no  avail.  So  closely  does  the  limpet 
cling  to  the  rock,  that  although  you  may  break  the  shell,  you  cannot  re- 
move it  from  its  place.  Learn  a  lesson  from  this  little  creature.  Cling 
closely  to  the  rock  of  right ;  let  every  attempt  to  withdraw  you  from  it 
only  make  your  grasp  more  firm  and  resolute,  and  suffer  any  thing,  yea, 
death  itself,  rather  than  loose  your  hold." 

Astronomy  may  thus  be  employed : 

"  You  say  that  there  are  difficulties  in  the  Bible  which  you  cannot  ex- 
plain. True ;  but  how  many  difficulties  are  there  in  God's  other  book— 
the  book  of  creation?  You  cannot  explain  how  yonder  silver-shining 
moon  is  kept  in  its  appointed  path,  never  turning  aside,  but  circling  con- 
tinually around  our  earth.  Yet  you  know  that  it  really  does  this.  And 
so  the  Bible  has  its  mysteries ;  if  it  had  not,  it  would  not  be  like  the  other 
works  of  God." 

The  "  Importance  of  those  e very-day  occurrences,  which  are 
often  termed  trifles,"  is  thus  illustrated  from  Chemistry : 

It  is  too  often  forgotten  how  great  an  influence  the  little  occurrences  of 
each  day  have  over  our  thoughts  and  dispositions.  They  are  ever  acting 
upon  us,  either  for  good  or  for  evil.  Chemists  tell  us  that  a  single  grain 
of  the  substance  called  iodine  will  impart  color  to  7000  times  i*;s  weight  of 
watex'.  It  is  so  in  the  higher  affairs  of  life.  One  companion,  one  book, 
one  habit,  may  affect  the  whole  life  and  character.  We  should  be  ever 
watchful  lest  our  hearts,  when  we  least  suspect  it,  become  tinged  with  evil, 

2.  The  Useful  and  the  Fine  Arts  furnish  numerous  illustrations 
of  moral  and  other  subjects. 

The  Daguerreotype  process,  for  instance : 

"  However  painful  the  troubles  and  afflictions  of  this  life  may  be,  ve 
know  that  they  are  sent  for  our  good ;  and  it  is  quite  certain  that,  if  rightly 
improved,  they  will  render  us  holier,  and  therefore  happier,  although,  as 
the  Bible  says,  they  at  first  'seem  grievous.'  You  have  often  seen  a  da- 
2uerreotype  portrait,  and,  I  dare  say,  have  admired  its  wonderful  accuracy. 
How  faithful  is  the  copy !  every  feature,  every  line  of  the  original,  has  been 
portrayed  on  the  surface  of  the  polished  metal.      Much  of  that  strange 


300  SOTTRCES   OF   ILLUSTRATION. 

process  was  carried  on  in  the  dark.  The  portrait  was  dra  .vn  in  a  darkened 
box ;  then  carried  into  a  darkened  room,  and  hidden  from  the  daylight, 
until  each  part  of  the  imaore  grew  clear  and  perfect.  So  if  God  places  iw 
in  the  dark  chamber  of  affliction,  it  is  that  we  may  become  more  like  Ilini 
— that  He  may  impress  His  own  image  more  plainly  on  our  hearts  ond 
lives." 

3.  Fiction^  such  as  Allegories,  Parables,  Fables,  Tales,  and  Le- 
gends, are  useful  for  purposes  of  illustration.  Thus,  "  The  folly 
of  useless  boasting,"  may  be  shown  by  such  a  Fable  as  the  follow- 
ing: 

*'  A  gourd  wound  itself  round  a  lofty  palm,  and  in  a  few  weeks  climbed 
to  its  very  top." 

"How  old  mayest  thou  be?"  asked  the  new-comer. 

**  About  a  hundred  years  !" 

"  About  a  hundred  years,  and  no  taller !  Only  look,  I  have  grown  as 
tall  as  you,  in  fewer  days  than  you  count  years." 

*'  I  know  that  well,"  replied  the  palm ;  "  every  summer  of  my  life  a 
gourd  has  climbed  up  around  me,  as  proud  as  thou  art,  and  as  short-lived 
as  thou  wilt  be." 

4.  Poetic  Quotation  often  furnishes  a  happy  and  beautiful  illus- 
tration of  subjects  upon  which  we  may  be  writing. 


LESSON  CXXX. 

ADDITIONAL   SOURCES    OF   ILLUSTRATION. 

1.  Obsevoation^  conversation^  and  daily  reading^  will  supply 
much  illustrative  matter  to  be  used  in  our  writing. 

We  must  keep  our  eyes  open  to  observe  all  that  passes  before 
them  in  the  fields  of  nature — our  eyes  and  ears  open  to  notice  all 
that  may  be  seen  and  learned  of  human  nature  in  our  intercourse 
with  our  fellow-men.  The  sayings  of  men — a  casual  remark — an 
anecdote  reported  to  us — a  phrase  used — newspaper  items — many 
of  these  may  be  turned  to  a  good  account,  and  for  this  purpose 
should  be  stored  up  in  the  memory,  or  recorded  in  a  common- 
place book,  with  an  appropriate  heading,  to  indicate  the  subject 
which  it  may  illustrate. 

Dr.  Aikin  has  written  a  fine  dialogue,  entitled  *^  Eyes  and  No 
Eyes,"  or  "  The  Art  of  Seeing,"  that  may  be  read  with  great  profi/ 
by  the  young,  in  this  connection. 


STOfilES   IN   THE   DRAMATIC   FORM.  301 

2.  For  purposes  of  illustration  and  greater  impression,  incidents 
or  stories  should  occasionally  te  presented  in  the  dramatic  form^ 
instead  of  being  narrated  in  the  ordinary  method.  The  writings 
of  Mr.  Jacob  Abbott,  owe  much  of  their  interest  and  value  to  this 
method  of  instruction.  Thus,  in  showing  how  to  proceed  wisely  in 
correcting  the  errors  of  our  friend,  he  advises  us  to  understand 
fully  the  position  of  that  friend,  to  see  with  his  eyes,  remembering 
that  lerror  appears  reasonable  to  all  who  embrace  it.  "  If,''  adds 
he,  "  instead  of  this  we  keep  at  a  distance,  and  fulminate  expres- 
sions of  reprobation  at  a  man's  errors,  we  may  gratify  our  own 
censoriousness,  but  can  do  him  no  good."  He  then  proceeds  thus 
to  illustrate  his  meaning : 

"  Father,"  says  a  little  child,  sitting  on  his  cricket  by  the  fireside,  on  a 
winter  evening:  "Father,  I  see  a  light,  a  strong  light,  out  the  window, 
over  across  the  road." 

*'  Nonsense,  you  silly  child,  there  is  no  house  across  the  road,  and  thero 
can  be  no  light  there  this  time  of  night." 

"But  I  certainly  see  one,  father — a  large,  bright  light." 

"  No  such  thing,"  insists  the  father  ;  "  it  cannot  be  so.  There  is  nothing 
over  there  that  can  burn.  I  can  see  out  of  the  window  myself,  and  it  ia 
all  a  white  field  of  snow." 

This  is  one  way  of  combating  error.  The  boy  is  silenced,  not  con- 
vinced ;  and  were  he  not  awed  by  parental  authority,  he  would  not  even 
be  silenced. 

*'  Where  ?"  says  another  father,  in  a  similar  case.  And  though  from  his 
own  chair  he  can  see  the  field  across  the  road,  he  goes  to  the  child,  and 
putting  his  eyes  close  to  his  son's,  says,  "  Where  ?  let  me  see." 

"  Ah  I  I  see  it :  well,  now,  walk  slowly  with  me  up  to  the  window." 

Thus  he  leads  the  boy  up,  and  shows  him  the  grounds  of  his 
illusion,  in  a  refleq^ion  of  i/he  fire  from  a  pane  of  glass. 


lESSON  CXXXI. 

DESCRIPTIVE    WRITING. 

A  description  is  a  statement  of  the  particular  circum- 
stances by  which  persons,  places,  and  objects,  are  distin- 
fijuished  from  other  persons,  places,  and  objects. 


302  DESCRIPTIVE  WRITING. 

The  description  of  a  person  sometimes  refers  only  to  the  figure 
and  countenance. 

"  Leah  was  tender-eyed,  but  Eachel  was  beautiful  and  well-favored.*' 
"  Joseph  was  a  goodly  person,  and  well-favored."  "  In  all  Israel  there 
was  none  to  be  so  much  praised  as  Absalom  for  his  beauty,  from  the  sole 
of  his  foot  even  to  the  crown  of  his  head,  there  was  no  blemish  in  him." 
*'  The  stature  of  William  the  Conqueror  was  tall^  and  the  composition  of 
his  bones  and  muscles  uncommonly  strong."  "  The  exterior  of  Henry  V., 
BS  well  as  his  deportment,  was  engaging ;  his  stature  was  somewhat  abv>ve 
the  middle  size ;  his  countenance  beautiful ;  his  limbs  genteel  and  slender, 
but  full  of  vigor." 

Descriptions  of  a  person  sometimes  refer  only  to  appearance^ 
manners.^  or  habits. 

"  And  he  said  unto  them,  What  manner  of  man  was  he  which  came  up 
to  meet  you,  and  told  you  these  words  ?  And  they  answered  him,  He  was 
an  liairy  man,  and  girt  with  a  girdle  of  leather  about  his  loins.  And  he 
said,  It  is  Elijah  the  Tishbite."— 2  Kings  i.  7,  8. 

Sometimes  the  description  of  a  person  refers  to  his  mental  facul- 
ties  or  attainments. 

"  Behold,  I  have  seen  a  son  of  Jesse,  the  Beth-lehemite,  that  is  cunning 
in  playing,  and  a  mighty  valiant  man,  and  a  man  of  war,  and  prudent  in 
matters,  and  a  comely  person,  and  the  Lord  is  with  him." — 1  Sam.  xvi.  18. 

"John  Wbsley  at  Oxford. — At  college  he  continued  his  studies  with 
all  diligence,  and  was  noticed  there  for  his  attainments,  and  especially  for 
his  skill  in  logic,  by  which  he  frequently  put  to  silence  those  who  con- 
tended with  him  in  after  life.  No  man,  indeed,  was  ever  more  dexterous 
in  the  art  of  reasoning.  A  charge  was  once  brought  against  him  that  he 
delighted  to  perplex  his  opponents  by  his  expertness  in  sophistry.  He  re- 
pelled it  with  indignation.  '  It  has  been  my  first  care,'  says  he,  *  to  see 
that  my  cause  was  good,  and  never,  either  in  jest  or  earnest,  to  defend  the 
wrong  side  of  a  question ;  and  shame  on  me  if  I  cannot  defend  the  right 
after  so  much  practice,  and  after  having  beea  so  early  accustomed  to  sepa- 
rate truth  from  falsehood,  how  artfully  soever  they  are  twisted  together.'  " 
— Soidh€y''8  '•''  Lifeof  Wesley.'''* 

Sometimes  the  description  is  not  of  a  person^  tut  of  a  character. 
See  the  description  of  a  good  wife  in  the  last  chapter  of  Proverbs. 
This  description  consists  in  an  enumeration  of  particulars. 

A  description  of  a  Place  may  include  its  situation^  climate^  pro- 
ductions., hoth  of  nature  and  art^  and  its  peculiar  beauties,  curiosi- 
ties^ advantages^  and  inconveniences.     But  such  full  descriptions 


QUESTIONS   FOR   DESCRIPTION.  303 

occur  chiefly  in  books  of  history  and  geography.  A  description 
intended  to  be  used  in  reasoning,  embraces  only  the  chief  point  in 
which  that  country,  city,  town,  village,  &c.,  differs  from  others  of 
the  game  class.  See  a  description  of  Tyre,  in  the  27th  chapter  of 
the  Prophet  Ezekiel.  See,  also,  a  description  of  the  Land  of  Canaan, 
DeMt.  viii.  7-9. 

Descriptiom  of  Objects  are  of  two  kinds, — one  relating  to  living 
forms,  and  the  other  to  such  as  are  inanimate. 

*'  Hast  thou  given  the  horse  strength  ?  Hast  thou  clothed  his  neck 
with  thunder?  Canst  thou  make  him  afraid  as  a  grasshopper?  The 
glory  of  his  nostrils  is  terrible.  He  paweth  in  the  valley,  and  rejoiceth  in 
his  strength ;  he  goeth  on  to  meet  the  armed  men.  He  mocketh  at  fear, 
and  is  not  affrighted ;  neither  turneth  he  back  from  the  sword.  The 
quiver  rattleth  against  him,  the  glittering  spear  and  the  shield.  He  swal- 
loweth  the  ground  with  fierceness  and  rage  ;  neither  believeth  he  that  it  is 
the  sound  of  the  trumpet.  He  saith  among  the  trumpets,  Ha,  ha ;  and  ho 
smelleth  the  battle  afar  off,  the  thunder  of  the  captains,  and  the  shout, 
mg." — Job  xxxix.  19-25. 

See,  also,  Proverbs  xxiv.  30-32. 


LESSON    CXXXII. 

QUESTIONS   SUGGESTIVE    OF   IDEAS   FOR   DESCRIPTION. 

Questions  to  Suggest  Ideas  in  Preparing  a  Description. 

1.  Oi Persons: 

What  is  the  personal  appearance,  stature,  form,  complexion,  color  of 
eyes,  the  arms,  the  hands?   &c. 

What  is  the  expression  of  countenance — the  character  indicated  ?  Which 
are  his  prominent  features  ? 

What  are  the  age,  personal  habits,  accomplishments,  attainments,  and 
occupation  ? 

What  is  the  intellectual,  moral,  social  character,  and  position  of  the 
person  ? 

For  what  particular  virtues,  or  vices,  or  manners,  is  he  distinguished  ? 
&c. 

2.  Of  sensible  aiid  inanimate  Objects  : 

Where  is  it  ?— What  is  it  made  of  ?— Who  was  the  maker  ?— When  wa!5 


304  EXERCISES  IN   DESCRIPTION. 

it  made? — Under  what  eh cu instances?— What  is  it  like? — What  is  its  in- 
tended use  ? — Is  it  well  adapted  to  such  use  ? — How  does  it  compare  with 
other  objects  of  a  similar  kind  or  purpose  ? — What  are  the  benefits  it  con- 
fers, the  disadvantages  it  overcomes  ? — What  are  its  constituent  parts,  and 
properties,  and  dimensions,  and  relations  to  each  other  ? — What  is  its 
color,  strength,  durability  ? — Of  what  things  does  it  remind  one  ?— What 
does  it  illustrate  ? — What  impressions  does  it  convey  ?  &c. 

Descriptive  compositions  should  be  so  arranged,  and  so  written, 
as  to  communicate,  in  as  great  a  degree  as  possible,  the  pleasure 
and  the  information  which  might  have  been  derived  from  the 
actual  presence  of  the  thing  described.  It  is  necessary  to  this  end 
that  the  writer  strongly  imagine  the  presence  of  the  object  de- 
scribed, so  as  to  select  judiciously  the  prominent  or  more  striking 
features,  specify  them  picturesquely^  and  describe  impressively. 

Exercises. 

Describe,  1.  Your  native  place,  and  surroundings. 

2.  Any  river  or  smaller  stream. 

3.  A  favorite  walk,  or  ride,  and  the  scenery  passed  through. 

4.  A  party  for  pic-nic,  hunting,  or  fishing,  &c. 

5.  The  manner  of  spending  some  holiday  season — thanksgiving 
— Christmas — Fourth  of  July,  &c. 

6.  Your  habits  of  study — pursuit  of  particular  studies. 

7.  Habits  of  your  instructor  as  to  modes  of  teaching. 

8.  Some  public  occasion — consecration  of  a  church  edifice,  open- 
ing of  a  public  hall,  reception  of  some  great  man,  &c. 

Whoever  aspires  to  be  a  good  descriptive  writer  must  adopt 
rigorously  the  plan  pursued  hy  Sir  Walter  Scott,  who,  perhaps, 
has  no  superiors  in  this  kind  of  writing,  either  for  style  of  language, 
or  for  faithfulness  and  accuracy  in  his  word-pictures.  Mr.  Merrit 
(in  Lockhart's  "  Life  of  Scott")  thus  speaks  of  the  labor  which  Sir 
Walter  performed  to  secure  accuracy  and  originality  in  his  de-^ 
scriptions  of  nature: 

"  On  his  visiting  Rokeby,  he  said  to  me,  '  You  have  often  given  me 
materials  for  a  romance ;  now  I  want  a  good  robbers  cave,  and  an  old 
church  of  the  right  sort."  We  rode  out,  and  he  found  what  he  wanted  in 
the  old  slate  quarries  of  Brignal,  and  the  ruined  Abbey  of  Egglestone.  ] 
observed  him  noting  down  even  the  peculiar  little  wild-Jiowers  ani  herbs 
that  accidentally  grew  around^  and  on  the  side  of  a  bold  crag,  near  his  in- 
tended cave  of  G-uy  Dcnzil ;  and  could  not  help  saying,  that  as  he  was  not 


NARRATIVE   COMPOSITION.  305 

to  be  upon  oath  in  his  work,  daisies^  violets^  and  primroses  would  he  as  poet- 
ical as  any  of  the  humbler  plants  he  was  examining.  I  laughed,  in  short, 
at  his  scrupulousness ;  but  I  understood  him  when  he  replied,  '  that  in 
^ature  herself  no  two  scenes  are  exactly  alike ;  and  that  ivhoever  copied 
wuly  what  was  before  his  eyes^  would  possess  the  same  variety  in  his  descrip- 
tions^ and  exhibit  apparently  an  imagination  as  boundless  as  the  range  of 
7iature  in  the  scene  he  recorded  ;  whereas,  whoever  trusted  to  imagination, 
would  soon  find  his  own  mind  circumscribed  and  contracted  to  a  few  fa- 
vorite images,  and  the  repetition  of  these  would,  sooner  or  later,  produce 
that  very  monotony  and  barrenness  which  had  always  haunted  descriptive 
poetry  in  the  hands  of  any  but  patient  worshippers  of  truth.  Besides 
which,'  he  said,  *  local  names  and  peculiarities  make  a  fictitious  story  look 
so  much  better  in  the  face.'  In  fact,  from  his  boyish  habits,  he  wf^«  ^rX 
half  satisfied  with  the  most  beautiful  scenery  when  he  could  not  connect 
with  it  some  local  legend ;  and  when  I  was  forced  sometimes  to  confess, 
with  the  knife-grinder,  *  Story  I  God  bless  you  !  I  have  none  to  tell,  sir,' 
— he  would  laugh,  and  say,  *  Then  let  us  make  one, — nothing  so  easy  as  to 
make  a  tradition.' " 


LESSON  CXXXIII. 

NARRATIVE     COMPOSITION. 

This  consists  of  a  statement  of  events  that  have  happened 
or  that  are  imagined,  and  of  persons  engaged  in  bringing 
them  about,  or  in  some  way  related  to  them.  These  events 
are  generally  stated  in  the  order  of  time  in  which  they 
occurred. 

This  form  of  writing  embraces  tales,  fables,  novels, 
travels,  biography,  history. 

Mr.  Jacob  Abbott,  one  of  the  most  prolific,  agreeable,  and  suc- 
cessful writers  of  narratives,  real  and  fictitious,  may  here  be 
quoted  with  great  advantage.     He  says: 

Every  object  in  the  room  is  the  subject  for  a  story  of  half  an  hour.  A  pin, 
a  wafer,  a  key,  a  stick  of  wood — there  is  nothing  which  is  not  full  of  inter- 
est to  children,  if  you  will  only  be  minute  enough.  Take  a  stick  of  wood. 
Tell  how  the  tree  it  came  from  sprung  from  the  ground,  years  ago  ;  how  it 
grew  every  summer  by  the  sap ;  how  this  stick  was  first  a  little  bud,  next 
year  a  shoot,  and  by-and-by  a  strong  branch ;  how  a  bird  perhaps  biiiU 


306  NARRATIVE   COMPOSITION. 

her  nest  on  it ;  how  squirrels  ran  up  and  down,  and  ants  crept  over  it, 
how  the  woodman  cut  down  the  tree,  &c.,  &c.,  expanding  all  the  particu- 
lars into  the  most  minute  narrative. 

Besides  this  class  of  subjects^  i.  e.,  descriptions  of  common  things,  there 
is  not  a  half -hour  in  a  day  whose  history  would  not  furnish  a  highly  interest- 
ing narrative  to  a  child.  Take,  for  instance,  your  first  half-hour  in  the 
morning ;  how  the  room  looked  when  you  awoke — what  you  first  thought 
of— how  you  proceeded  in  dressing— the  little  difficulties  you  met  with, 
and  their  remedies — what  you  first  saw  when  you  came  down  stairs,  and 
what  you  did,  &c. 

A  walk  in  a  milage^  any  imaginary  history  of  a  man's  bringing  a  load  of 
wood  to  market,  or  an  laccount  of  a  boy's  making  a  collection  of  playthings 
for  a  cabinet, — what  he  had,  and  how  he  arranged  them  ;  or  the  common 
every-day  adventures  of  a  cat  about  the  house,  now  sleeping  in  the  corner, 
now  watching  at  a  mouse's  hole  in  the  dark  cellar,  and  now  ascending  to 
the  house-top  and  walking  along  on  the  edge  of  the  roof,  looking  down  to 
the  boys  in  the  yard  below.  These  are  mentioned,  not  to  propose  them, 
particularly,  but  to  show  how  wide  is  the  field,  and  how  endless  the  num- 
oer  and  the  variety  of  the  topics  which  are  open  before  you. 

As  to  the  method  of  writing  a  story ^  every  thing  should  be  pre- 
sented in  such  a  way  as  to  convey  vivid  pictures  to  the  mind. 
This  is  the  key  to  one  of  the  great  secrets  of  interesting  the  young. 
Approach  their  minds  through  the  senses.  Descrile  every  thing 
as  it  presents  itself  to  the  eye  and  to  the  ear.  A  different  course 
is,  indeed,  often  wise ;  as,  for  example,  when  you  wish  to  exer- 
cise and  develop  the  power  of  generalization  and  abstraction ;  but, 
generally,  when  your  wish  is  merely  to  interest,  or  to  convey 
knowledge,  i.  e.,  where  you  wish  to  gain  the  readiest  and  most 
complete  access  to  the  heart,  these  are  the  doors. 

Another  direction :  Be  exceedingly  minute  in  the  details  of  what 
you  describe.  In  writing  even  for  the  mature,  the  success  of  the 
composition  depends  much  upon  the  degree  of  fidelity  with  which 
those  most  minute  circumstances  which  give  to  any  scene  its  ex- 
pression, are  described  to  the  mind.  Every  event,  every  incident, 
every  fact,  every  phenomenon,  however  common,  and  every  ob- 
ject of  sight  or  hearing  is  connected  with  a  thousand  associations 
and  trains  of  thought,  which  may  be  expanded. 

Another  direction :  Let  the  style  te  abrupt  and  striking.,  and 
give  the  reins  entirely  to  the  imagination.  For  a  more  full  illus- 
tration of  these  topics,  refer  to  Abbott's  "Way  to  Do  Good," 
chap,  ix.,  whence  the  preceding  observations  and  illustrations 
have  been  taken. 


PERSONAL   NARRATIVE.  307 

Personal   Narrative. 

The  following  directions  for  this  may  be  observed :  Im- 
agine the  ordinary  events  of  your  daily  experience.  Dwell 
on  the  subject  till  you  feel  an  interest  in  it.  Ask  yourself 
the  questions^  what  did  I  do  first,  what  did  I  see,  whom 
did  I  meet,  what  was  said  or  done  by  me,  or  by  the  person 
met,  and  other  questions  of  the  sort.  The  answers  to  such 
questions  presented  in  a  connected  order  will  furnish  the 
desired  narrative.  An  example  is  subjoined  from  "  Smart's 
Manual." 

1.  My  History  of  To-day. 

I  rose  at  six  o'clock.  It  was  a  fine  summer's  morning,  and  as  my  hour 
of  study  was  not  till  seven,  I  went  to  take  a  walk.  The  air  was  fresh  ;  the 
sun  shone  ;  and  the  larks  were  singing  above  my  head.  I  passed  through 
/iorn-lields,  meadows,  and  pastures;  returning  by  the  road  that  winds 
with  the  river.  Reaching  home  at  the  appointed  hour,  I  sat  down  to  my 
<;ask,  and  prepared  for  construing,  parsing,  and  scanning  twenty  lines  of 
Virgil,  beginning  at  the  second  Book.  Then  we  breakfasted,  and  played 
for  an  hour.  At  nine  I  went  up  with  my  class,  and  got  successfully 
through  the  lesson  I  had  prepared.  From  ten  till  twelve  we  were  em- 
ployed in  writing  and  ciphering ;  and  then  came  our  lessons  in  history  and 
geography;  after  which  we  dined.  When  dinner  was  over,  we  had 
another  hour's  play.  Our  lesson  in  English  followed,  and  the  drawing- 
master  came  at  four.  At  five  I  had  a  lesson  in  music,  which  occupied  me 
till  our  evening  meal.  Afterwards  came  the  dancing-master,  and  he  tired 
us  out ;  so  that,  having  furnished  you,  at  your  request,  with  this  history, 
I  am  glad  to  say  good  night,  and  go  to  bed. 

It  is  plain  that  all  this  might  be  a  little  more  particularized. 
The  twenty  lines  of  Yirgil  are  stated,  but  the  other  lessons  are 
spoken  of  in  general  terms.  The  morning's  walk  might  have  been 
more  minutely  described,  and  the  fields  specified.  But  it  is  only 
fair  to  leave  to  the  narrator  a  choice  of  circumstances  for  descrip- 
tion ;  it  is  in  the  selection  that  he  shows  his  taste ;  and  his  taste 
will  improve,  if  he  observes  how  far  he  fails,  and  how  far  he  suc- 
ceeds, in  every  attempt  to  frame  a  description  of  the  kind  here 
exemplified. 

2.  The  narration  of  a  story  unconnected  with  yourself 
will   also   be   a  useful   occasion   of  trying  your  powers. 


308  NARRATION   OF   A   STORY. 

Doubtless  this  occasion  has  often  happened.  What  yon 
have  been  told  by  one  person  you  have  reported  to  others ; 
and  you  may  have  related  in  a  worse,  or  in  a  better  man- 
ner, the  tale  which  you  heard.  Your  aim  must  be  to  re- 
late,  in  the  best  manner  you  can,  whatever  narrative  iai 
proposed :  all  that  your  teacher  ought  to  do,  is,  to  put 
you  in  possession  of  the  subject  and  the  facts ;  and  when 
your  exercise  is  brought  to  him,  to  point  out  to  you,  as  a 
guide  for  future  attempts,  how  it  might  have  been  better. 

Suppose  you  are  required  to  tell,  from  early  Koman  history, 
the  story  or  legend  of  Camillus,  and  the  schoolmaster  of  the 
Falisci?  Starting  on  this  suggestive  title,  and  presuming  you  to 
know  the  rest,  or  to  be  told  of  it,  or  have  it  read  to  you,  you  can 
have  no  difficulty  in  reporting  the  facts  to  another  person, — • 
namely,  "  that  the  schoolmaster  having  under  his  care  the  sons  ot 
all  the  principal  families  of  the  place,  led  them  out  of  the  town  un^ 
der  pretence  of  a  walk  for  pleasure  and  exercise,  and  then  went 
and  gave  them  up  to  the  commander  of  the  besieging  army ;  but- 
Camillus,  disdaining  such  baseness,  refused  to  take  advantage  of  it, 
and  ordered  the  boys  to  flog  the  schoolmaster  back  into  the  city." 
When  you  have  thus  briefly  repeated  the  facts,  you  may  be  re- 
quired to  write  them  down,  and  improve  the  effect  of  the  whole 
by  certain  additions,  which  will  not  fail  to  suggest  themselves  to 
your  fancy,  promded  you  think  'oery  earnestly  on  what  you  have  to 
communicate^  and  try^  as  you  go  on^  to  make  the  strongest  impres- 
sion you  can  on  your  reader.  You  should,  in  the  first  place,  con- 
sider what  qualities  of  heart  or  mind  the  chief  actors  in  the  story 
exhibit ;  and  you  may  state  these  qualities  by  way  of  title,  as  the 
moral  purpose  or  intention  of  your  story. 

Baseness  and  Generosity  Contrasted. 

When  Camillus,  in  the  early  times  of  Kome,  was  besieging  Falerii,  a  city 
which  belonged  to  the  people  called  Falisci,  he  was  one  day  surprised  to 
see  a  man  approach  him  from  the  town,  who  brought  with  him  a  number 
of  boys  that  seemed  to  be  under  his  care.  "  Camillus,"  said  the  man,  as 
soon  as  he  was  in  the  general's  presence,  "  I  deliver  into  your  hands  these 
youths,  and  in  delivering  them,  I  deliver  to  you  the  city  you  are  besieging. 

am  a  schoolmaster ;  and  there  is  not  one  person  of  any  rank  in  the  towt 


HOW   TO   COMPOSE   A    STORY.  309 

vrhose  son  is  not  here  among  the  number  of  my  scholars.  With  these  in 
your  power,  you  may  require,  for  ransom,  the  immediate  surrender  of  the 
city,  and  almost  any  further  advantage  you  please.  Such  is  the  great  ser- 
vice which,  in  hopes  of  a  correspondent  recompense,  I  am  happy  to  render 
to  you."  Camillus,  instead  of  accepting  the  offer,  contemplated  the  man 
with  all  the  indignation  of  a  noble  soul.  Without  condescending  to  answer 
him,  he  ordered  his  hands  to  be  tied,  and  his  cloak  removed ;  then  putting 
rods  into  the  hands  of  the  boys,  he  desired  them  to  flog  him  back  into  the 
town,  and  make  their  fathers  acquainted  with  all  that  had  taken  place. 
This  act  of  magnanimity  affected  the  citizens  greatly,  and  led  the  way  to 
a  pacification  which  satisfied  both  parties,  while  it  brought  more  honor  to 
Camillus  than  could  have  been  procured  by  the  most  successful  operations 
of  war. 


LESSON  CXXXIV. 

In  the  act  of  composing,  much  advantage  will  be  gained 
by  not  thinking  it  a  task.  Get  rid  of  your  repugnance  to 
it  by  contending  with  it.  Find,  or  frame,  some  occasion 
for  teUing  a  story  that  has  pleased  you.  Endeavor  to  recol- 
lect your  expressions  while  you  were  animated  with  your 
subject;  write  them  down,  and  correct  them  yourself,  or 
get  another  to  correct  them.  Thus  will  be  acquired  a  style, 
easy,  yet  not  slovenly ;  such  a  style  as  is  fitted  for  the 
ordinary  business  of  life.  You  may  not  please  yourself 
in  your  first  attempts ;  and  it  is  better  that  you  should 
not.  You  ought  to  keep  before  your  mind  an  exalted 
standard  of  excellence,  through  the  influence  of  which  your 
attempts  may  be  always  rising  higher  and  higher,  though 
the  degree  of  excellence  which  your  imagined  standard  of 
excellence  holds  forth  be  unattained,  and  perhaps  unat-- 
tainable. 

SUBJECTS  FOR  EXERCISE. 

PERSONAL   SUBJECTS. 

1.  My  History  of  Yesterday.  2.  My  Name,  Country,  Parentage,  Dato  of 
Birth,  Present  Age,  and  such  other  Ci^-cumstances  as  might  he  stated  nt 


310  EXERCISES   FOR  NARRATION". 

the  beginning  of  an  Autobiogmphy.     8.  The  Earliest  Things  1  can  re- 
member.    4.  The  Events  of  a  Kemarkable  Day  about weeks,  months, 

or  years  ago.     (Several  Exercises  may  be  framed  with  this  title,  if  several 
remarkable  days  can  be  called  to  mind).     5.  Narrative  of  my  Journey  to 

— — (several  exercises).     6.  Account  of  a  Conversation  I  held  with 

(several  exercises).    7.  Statement  of  the  Studies  I  am  pursuing,  which  1 
find  difficult  or  easy,  and  which  I  take  the  most  delight  in. 

Naerative  or  Statement  of  Facts  from  English  History. 

In  developing  these  and  the  similar  subjects  which  follow, 
books  of  reference  must  be  entirely  dispensed  with  during 
the  time  of  writing.  Preparation  for  writing,  if  not 
already  made  by  the  learner's  previous  studies,  may  be 
made  before  the  time  of  writing ;  but  there  should  be 
some  interval  between  the  preparation  and  the  exercise ; 
and  no  notes,  except  of  dates,  should  be  taken. 

1.  The  Early  People  of  England;  the  Facts  of  the  Eoman  Invasion ;  the 
Story  of  the  Romans  and  the  State  of  the  Britons  when  the  Romans  left 
them.  2.  How  England  came  into  possession  of  the  Saxons.  3.  Chief 
Facts  in  the  History  of  King  Alfred.  4.  Story  of  Canute  rebuking  the 
Sea.  5.  The  Battle  of  Hastings  and  its  immediate  Consequences.  6.  The 
Three  Sons  of  William  the  Conqueror — their  Conduct  to  each  other,  and 
their  Several  Destinies.  7.  The  Quarrel  between  Henry  II.  and  Thomas 
a  Becket,  with  the  Issue.  8.  The  Crusades — What  they  were,  and  how 
far  the  fortunes  of  Kichard  II.  were  connected  with  them.  9.  Facts  show- 
ing the  bad  Character  of  King  John.  10.  Chief  Facts  in  the  History  of 
the  Maid  of  Orleans.    11.  Arrest  and  Last  Days  of  Cardinal  Wolsey. 

From  Roman  History. 

1.  The  Legend  of  Eomulus  and  Eemus.  2.  The  Founding  of  Eome,  and 
the  Death  of  Eemus.  3.  Legend  of  Horatii  and  Curiatii.  4.  The  Strata- 
gem by  which  Servius  TuUius,  the  Sixth  King  of  Eome,  succeeded  his 
father-in-law,  Tarquinius  Priscus.  5.  Story  of  the  Conspiracy  which 
ended  in  the  condemnation  of  the  sons  of  Brutus  by  their  own  father. 
6.  Story  of  Mutius  Scsevola.    7.  Story  of  Coriolanus. 

From  Grecian  History. 

1.  The  Stratagem  of  the  Wooden  Horse,  by  which,  after  a  Ten  Years* 
Siege,  the  Greeks  obtained  possession  of  Troy.  2.  Patriotism  of  Codrus, 
the  last  king  of  Athens.  3.  Dionysius  of  Syracuse  and  Damocles ;  Story 
of  the  Pendent  Sword.    4.  Story  of  Damon  and  Pythias. 


BIOGRAPHY.  311 


Feom  Amerioan  Histoey. 


1.  The  arrival  of  the  Mayflower  at  Plvjiouth.  2.  The  destruction  of 
Tea  at  Boston.  3.  The  Battle  of  Bunker's  Hill.  4.  The  Capture  of  Major 
Andre,  and  the  treachery  of  Arnold.    5.  Smith  and  Pocahontas. 


LESSON    CXXXV. 

BIOGRAPHY. 

The  purpose  of  biography  is  to  place  before  the  reader 
the  characteristics  of  some  particular  person,  as  displayed 
in  the  actions  and  events  of  his  life.  It  is  a  successive  ac- 
count of  the  events  which  have  affected  or  distinguished 
him. 

The  Topics  to  be  treated  are  such  as  these:  1.  N^ame;  2.  Fam- 
ily or  descent;  3.  Education;  4.  Circumstances  and  influences 
affecting  character;  5.  Doings;  6.  Surroundings,  such  as  mar- 
riage, friends,  business,  &c. ;  7.  Effects  produced  in  himself  and 
on  society;  8.  Character;  9.  Sickness  and  death;  10.  Results, 
permanent  or  otherwise. 

A  very  brief  illustration  of  these  topics  may  be  thus  presented, 
in  their  order  which  might  be  written  out,  as  an  exercise,  in  full : 

1.  William  Shakspeare.  2,  John  Shakspeare  and  Mary  Arden,  daugh- 
ter and  heiress  of  Arden  of  Wellingcote.     3.  Stratford  Grammar-School. 

4.  His  father,  a  wool-dealer  and  general  hosier ;  beautiful  natural  scenery, 
historic  reminiscences  prevalent,  and  great  mental  activity  of  the  age. 

5.  Love  and  pleasure  pursued,  intellect  awakened,  and  plays.  6.  Anna 
Hathaway — three  daughters  and  a  son.  7.  Theatrical  connections,  profits, 
retirement,  &c.,  popularity,  and  everlasting  honor.  8.  Saving,  genial 
in  company,  watchful  over  property,  heedless  of  fame,  conscious  of  great- 
ness, &c.  9.  Stratford,  23d  April,  aged  52.  10.  Commentators,  editions 
and  quotations,  biography,  historic  value  of  writings  ;  notes  of  life,  phi- 
losophy and  morals,  important  estimates  of  his  works,  monuments,  and 
affection  entertainec"  for  his  memory. 

The  following  rules  apply  to  Biographical  Composition : 
1st.  Confine  the  incidents  selected  for  narrative  to  those 
closely  connected  with  the  individual. 


312  HISTOKICAL   COMPOSITION. 

2d.  Give  just  statements  of  facts,  and  fair,  i.  e.,  neither 
partial  nor  adversative,  expositions  of  character. 

3d.  Let  the  style  be  easy,  clear,  elegant,  but  natural. 

Exercises. 

1.  Sketch  of  Lady  Jane  Grey. 

2.  Sketch  of  Regains. 

3.  Sketch  of  Pocahontas. 

4.  Sketch  of  Henry  Kirke  White. 

5.  Sketch  of  Washington  in  his  boyhood. 

6.  Sketch  of  Benjamin  Franklin. 

For  other  biographical  subjects,  consult  the  general  list  of  sub- 
jects at  the  end  of  the  volume. 


LESSON  CXXXVI. 

HISTORICAL   COMPOSITION  ;   TRAVELS  ;    NOVELS. 

L  History. 

History  contains  a  record  of  national  events,  for  our  in- 
formation as  regards  the  past,  and  our  guidance  in  the 
future. 

The  following  particulars  demand  attention  in  historical  writing : 
1.  The  geographical  situation  and  physical  characteristics  of  the 
country.  2.  Events  and  their  chronology,  or  time  of  occurrence; 
in  the  country  described  and  in  neighboring  countries.  3.  Means 
employed  to  increase  happiness,  and  their  effects.  4.  Obstacles  to 
public  welfare,  whence  they  arose,  and  how  they  were  overcome. 
5.  Form  of  government;  institutions,  civil  and  religious,  their 
changes  and  effects.  6.  Education  and  freedom — their  influence 
on  public  happiness.  7.  The  men  and  women  on  whom  progress 
depended.  8.  Home  and  foreign  policy.  9.  Condition  of  the 
people.  10.  Wars,  sciences,  arts;  their  origin,  progress,  and 
results. 

In  the  attempt  to  treat  of  any  historic  period,  no  exercise  can 
be  better  than  the  thorough  study  of  the   period  in  the  best 


TRAVELS. NC5  V  ELS.  313 

authors;  nurturing  thought  on  the  period  by  reflections;  then, 
taking  some  standard  work  on  chronology,  and  noting  the  most 
important  events  given  therein,  work  them  up  in  the  order  given 
above. 

Historical  narration  demands — 1.  Skill  in  the  selection 
and  arrangement  of  events.  2.  Fidelity,  3.  Diversity  of 
style;  simplicity,  gravity,  chasteness,  and  clearness  being 
"  chief  over  all." 

For  examples  :  Refer  to  Bancroft's  History  of  the  United 
States,  Prescott's  Histories,  Irving's  Columbus  and  Wash- 
ington, Motley's  Dutch  Republic,  Abbott's  Histories, 
Hume,  Robertson,  Gibbon,  Alison. 

n.  Books  of  Travel. 

These  should  be  interesting,  novel,  simple,  chronologi- 
cal ;  and  free  from  egotism,  satire,  or  caiicature. 

It  would  be  gratifying  to  quote  largely  from  the  numerous  and 
highly  interesting  Travels  of  distinguished  writers  of  the  present 
century,  who  have  favored  the  world  with  their  observation/^  and 
criticisms ;  but  this  volume  already  transcends  the  limits  originally 
proposed,  and  reference  must  be  made  to  the  class  of  works  re- 
ferred to,  for  the  requisite  illustrations. 

HI.  Novels. 

(1.)  In  general,  the  incidents^  though  usually  connected 
as  cause  and  effect,  and  leading  to  some  determined  result, 
should  not  be  too  obvious  and  direct^  that  the  uncertainty 
may  stimulate  curiosity  and  sustain  interest. 

(2.)  Besides  this,  probability^  unity  ^  and  variety  of  char- 
acter and  incident  must  be  observed.  The  characters 
should  be  distinct,  well  chosen,  sustained,  uniform,  and 
consistent;  the  incidents  clearly  traced,  well  arranged, 
skilfully  varied,  and  so  intricate  as  1 3  be  interesting, 

14 


314  RULES   FOR   LETTER-WRITING. 

LESSON    CXXXVII. 

LETTER-WRITING. — RULES   FOR   IT. 

This  is  one  of  the  necessities,  one  of  the  amenities,  and 
may  become  one  of  the  high  accomplishments  of  life. 
Great  skill  and  excellence  in  the  performance  of  it  should 
therefore  be  earnestly  sought,  and,  if  possible,  attained. 

It  should  be  made  as  much  like  conversation  as  possible.  It 
should  communicate  on  paper  what  you  would  communicate 
orally  to  your  correspondents,  could  they  present  themselves  be- 
fore you.  The  best  preparation  for  it,  therefore,  is  to  consider 
what  you  would  say  were  the  time  for  conversation  very  limited, 
admitting  of  no  more  to  be  said  than  your  letter-sheet  can  in- 
clude. This  thought  will  give  conciseness,  terseness,  importance, 
and  comprehensiveness  to  every  sentence. 

Rules  for  Letter- Writing. 

1.  The  style  should  he  simple  and  natural,  as  that  which  should 
be  observed  in  conversation.  Sprightliness  and  wit,  however,  if 
spontaneous  and  easy,  may  be  happily  and  advantageously  intro- 
duced. 

2.  7^e  style  should  not  he  too  highly  polished,  as  it  will  then 
appear  elaborate.  It  ought  to  be  neat  and  correct,  but  no  more. 
The  best  letters,  commonly,  are  those  which  are  written  with 
rapidity,  under  the  dictation  of  a  warm  heart  or  a  glowing  im- 
agination. 

3.  What  has  heen  said  does  not  imply  that  the  style  or  manner 
of  writing  may  he  careless  or  slovenly.  In  writing  even  to  a  most 
familiar  friend,  a  certain  degree  of  attention  and  care  to  please,  id 
due  to  him  and  to  yourself. 

4.  In  letter-writing,  as  in  conversation,  it  is  necessary  to  attend 
to  all  the  decorums  which  our  own  character,  and  that  of  others^ 
demanis.     We  should  never  be  rude  or  disrespectful. 

5.  Another  good  rule  in  letter-writing  is,  that  we  must  never 
say  what  is  not  true^  and  should  seldom  tell  what  is  not  worth 


RULES   FOR  LETTER-WRITING.  315 

Mowing.    Truthfulness  and  importance  in  our  statements  should 
be  studied. 

6.  In  writing  to  a  man  of  business^  on  affairs  of  business,  as 
brevity  is  the  soul  of  wit,  so  is  it  the  soul  of  the  business  letter. 
Three  counsels  here  are  appropriate :  first,  use  as  few  compli- 
ments as  common  courtesy  will  allow ;  secondly,  never  say  any 
thing  that  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  subject;  and,  thirdly,  write 
all  that  the  subject  really  requires,  and  say  that  in  the  most  per- 
spicuous manner,  that  your  correspondent  shall  not  be  able  to 
misunderstand  what  you  have  written.  Let  not  brevity  lead  you 
to  omit  any  important  particular. 

7.  The  dignity  of  the  style  must  be  adapted  to  the  age  and  at- 
tainments of  our  correspondent.  It  would  be  ridiculous  to  write 
to  a  child  in  the  same  strain  as  to  a  person  of  mature  mind;  to 
an  uneducated  person,  as  to  a  man  of  learning  and  varied  acquire- 
ments. Here  good  sense  must  guide  us,  as  it  would  in  conver- 
sation. 

"  That  epistolary  style,"  says  a  judicious  writer,  "  is  clearly  the  best, 
whether  easy  or  elaborate,  simple  or  adorned,  which  is  best  adapted  to 
the  subject,  to  time,  to  place,  and  to  person ;  which,  upon  grave  and  mo- 
mentous topics,  is  solemn  and  dignified  ;  on  common  themes,  terse,  easy, 
and  only  not  careless  ;  on  little  and  trifling  matters,  gay,  airy,  lively,  and 
facetious ;  on  jocular  subjects,  sparkling  and  humorous ;  in  formal  and 
complimentary  addresses,  embellished  with  rhetorical  figures,  and  finished 
with  polished  periods ;  in  persuasion,  bland,  insinuating,  and  ardent ;  in 
exhortation,  serious  and  sententious  ;  on  prosperous  affairs,  open  and  joy- 
ous ;  on  adverse,  pensive  and  tender.  A  different  style  is  often  necessary 
on  the  same  topics:  to  old  people,  and  to  young ;  to  men,  and  to  women ; 
to  rich,  and  to  poor;  to  the  great,  and  to  the  little ;  to  scholars,  and  to  the 
illiterate;  to  strangers,  and  to  familiar  companions." 


LESSON    GXXXVIII. 

ADDITIONAL   RULES   FOR   LETTER-WRITING. — SPECIMENS. 

8.  The  careful  perusal  of  such  well-written  letters  as  are  met 
with  in  good  authors,  sometimes  in  newspapers ;  but,  above  all,  a 
regular  and  frequent  correspondence  with  persons  who  write  well, 


316  RULES  FOK   LETTER-WRITINO. 

should  be  practised,  as  among  the  best  means  of  excelling  in  this 
most  useful,  ornamental,  and  delightful  art. 

9.  In  letters  of  friendship  and  affection,  heware  of  extravagant 
professions^  and  of  affected  sentimentalism.  Never  express  more 
than  you  feel.  Expressions  of  unalterable  attachment  sometimes 
outlive  what  you  express,  and  may  expose  you  to  reproach.  Let- 
ters of  condolence  should  be  written  in  the  most  prudent  and  un- 
affected manner,  and  be  limited  to  the  occasion  referred  to.  In 
letters  of  introduction,  a  sedulous  regard  to  truth  should  be  paid. 
It  is  usual  to  leave  them  unsealed,  and  to  place  on  the  back  the 
name  of  the  person  therein  introduced. 

10.  Do  not  regard  as  too  formidable  a  task  the  writing  of  a 
letter.  It  is  not  to  be  regarded  as  a  trial  of  skill,  or  a  display  of 
fine  words,  empty  compliments,  and  pompous  expressions;  but  as 
the  communication  to  some  friend,  as  if  present,  of  what  we  really 
think,  and  feel,  and  desire.  It  is,  to  "say,  in  few  and  simple 
words,  the  things  most  important  to  be  said ;  then  things  of  mi- 
nor importance,  which  yet  may  be  interesting.  If  time  and  paper 
allow,  put  them  all  in ;  if  not,  leave  out  the  most  trifling.  If,  on 
the  other  hand,  all  is  said,  make  a  close,  and  do  not,  for  the  sake 
of  filling  your  sheet,  drawl  on  when  you  have  nothing  to  say." 

11.  Not  only  write  in  a  legible  and  good  hand^  but  studioTisly 
avoid  all  errors  in  spelling^  in  the  use  of  capitals^  in  punctuation^ 
grammar^  and  rhetoric.  When  the  length  of  your  letter  and  the 
variety  of  topics  justify  the  act,  divide  it  into  paragraphs  of  suit- 
able length,  so  that  the  main  topics  may  each  be  considered  by 
itself. 

12.  As  to  the  proper  form  and  the  several  parts  of  a  letter,  the 
method  of  arranging  the  matter.,  the  commencement  and  the  close., 
— these  things  may  be  learned  from  the  numerous  specimens  ap- 
pended, some  of  which  have  been  copied,  with  some  slight  alter- 
ations, from  a  recent  London  work,  entitled  "The  Ladies'  and 
Gentlemen's  Letter- Writer." 

It  requires  some  judgment  and  good  sense,  in  certain  cases,  to  decide 
whether  we  should  commence  a  letter  with  "  Sir,"  *'  Dear  Sir,"  "  My  doar 
Sir;"  or  with  "  Madam,"  "  Dear  Madam,"  "  My  dear  Madam  ;"  or  "  Miss 

,"  "  Dear  Miss ,"  "My  dear  Miss ."     Which  of  these  should 

be  adopted,  depends  on  the  relative  position  and  familiarity  of  the  par- 
ties. 

Relatives  are  of  course  addressed  by  the  titles  of  relation  which  they 


LETTER-WEITINO. 


817 


bear ;  those  of  about  the  same  age,  or  intimate  friends,  may  be  addressed 
by  their  Christian  names :  "  My  dear  Fanny,"  '*  My  dear  Edward,"  &c. 

The  name  of  the  person  referred  to  in  the  address,  if  inserted  at  all, 
may  be  placed  on  the  first  line,  at  the  left,  on  the  first  page ;  or  on  the 
lowest  line,  at  the  left,  on  the  last  page. 

13.  Be  careful  what  you  write,  since  "what  is  written  is  writ- 
ten," and  may  be  produced  long  after  the  occasion  which  prompted 
tlie  letter.  What  you  write  may  cost  unavailing  regret  to  your- 
self, or  unhappiness  and  injury  to  others;  therefore,  '^  thinh  he/ore 
you  write,  and  thinh  while  you  are  writing.^"* 

14.  It  is  a  matter  of  expediency  to  answer  every  letter,  requiring 
an  answer,  as  soon  as  practicable.  This  will  save  you  and  others, 
perhaps,  from  inconvenience  or  disappointment.  In  matters  of 
business,  delay  may  be  attended  with  injury  to  parties  concerned. 

From  a  Young  Lady  at  school  to  her  Mother, 

My  dearest  Mamma — Although  I  was  almost  heart-broken  at  partmg 
from  you,  for  the  first  time  in  my  life,  I  felt  that  you  would  never  have 
let  me  quit  home  but  for  my  own  good ;  and  I  hope  I  am  not  ungrateful 
enough  to  prefer  mere  selfish  gratification  to  future  welfare. 

1  find  school  much  less  disagreeable  than  I  had  expected.  There  are,  ci 
course,  many  varieties  of  disposition — for  a  school  is  like  a  little  world , 
but,  for  the  most  part,  the  girls  make  themselves  very  pleasant  to  me. 

Mrs. is  kindness  itself,  and  sets  an  example  of  mutual  good-will  tc 

all  of  us. 

My  studies  are,  I  think,  progressing  satisfactorily,  although  I  am,  oi 
course,  in  the  background  as  yet,  especially  in  my  French.  The  music- 
master  is  rather  passionate,  especially  if  we  play  out  of  time,  which  yon 
know,  dear  Mamma,  used  to  be  an  unfortunate  fault  of  your  Julia's.  Bat 
he  takes  great  pains,  and  you  will  have  less  to  complain  of  in  my  playing 
when  I  return. 

How  1  long  to  kiss  and  embrace  you  again  !  God  bless  you,  dear  Mamma, 
and  believe  me, 

Your  ever  aifectionate  child, 

To  Mrs. .  . 

Announcing  the  Vacation, 

Mt  dear  Parents— It  is  with  mingled  feelings  of  regret  and  pleasure, 
that  I  announce  that  the  termination  of  this  half  year's  work  is  fixed  foi 
the  — th  instant.  I  sincerely  hope  that  I  shall  not  only  find  you  in  excel- 
lent health,  but  that  you  will  be  satisfied  with  my  improvement  since  1 
last  left  home.    No  pains  have  been  spared  by  any  of  my  teachers  to  ren- 


318  LETTEK-WEITING. 

der  me  worthy  of  your  good  opinion ;  and  I  must  ever  feel  grateful  both  to 
them,  and  to  yourselves,  for  the  pains  bestowed  upon  my  education. 

Mrs.  {or  Miss)  desires  me  to  present  her  best  compliments ;  and, 

with  my  best  love  to  my  sisters  and  brothers,  believe  me  to  remain, 
My  dear  parents, 

Your  ever  dutiful  and  affectionate  daughter, 

Addressing  a  Firm^  for  a  GlerhsTiip. 

Gentlemen — Perceiving  by  your  advertisement  in  the of ,  that 

you  are  in  want  of  a  clerk,  I  beg  to  inclose  testimonials,  and  venture  to 
hope  that  from  my  previous  experience  in  the  line  of  business  you  pursue, 
I  should  be  of  some  use  in  your  establishment.  My  habits  of  life  are  such 
as  to  insure  regularity  in  the  discharge  of  my  duties,  and  I  can  only  assure 
you  that,  should  you  honor  me  with  your  confidence,  I  shall  spare  no  pains 
to  acquit  myself  to  your  satisfaction. 

I  remain.  Gentlemen, 

Your  obedient  servant, 

To  Messrs. .  . 

Requesting  the  loan  of  some  BooTcs  during  Sichness. 

Bear 1  am  far  from  well ;  indeed,  I  have  been  confined  to  my 

sofa  for  some  days  past,  and  have  enjoyed  no  amusement  but  such  as  my 
few  books  afforded  me.  I  write  to  beg  the  loan  of  some  of  the  "  Waverley'' 
novels,  of  which  I  know  you  possess  a  complete  set.  They  shall  be  taken 
every  possible  care  of,  and  returned  as  regularly  as  read.  Pray  look  in  for 
an  hour  now  and  then,  and  speak  a  few  words  of  comfort  to 

Yours  ever  sincerely, 

To  Miss .  . 

The  Answer. 

Dear How  grieved  I  am  to  hear  of  your  illness !   I  send  you  half  a 

dozen  volumes,  which  I  hope  will  lighten  the  tediousness  of  your  sofa- 
confinement,  and  will  come  and  see  you  to-morrow  morning.  I  should 
have  done  so  ere  now,  but  have  been  so  variously  engaged  that  I  have 
Bcarcely  had  a  minute  to  myself. 

Wishing  sincerely  to  find  you  better, 

I  am,  dear , 

Yours  ever  affectionately. 
To  Miss .  : 

On  returning  a  Borrowed  Boole. 

Dbab  Sir — I  return  you  the  book  which  you  were  kind  enough  to  lend 
me,  and,  with  it,  accept  my  best  thanks  for  your  kindness.  The  work  is 
both  interesting  and  instructive,  and  I  have  been  much  gratified  by  its 


LETTER-WRITING.  319 

perusal.    If  I  can  in  any  thing  return  the  favor,  it  will  give  me  much 
pleasure  to  do  so. 

I  am  sir, 

Yours,  much  obliged, 
To ,  Esq.  . 

A  Note  requesting  the  Payment  of  a  small  Debt, 

Dear  Sir — I  must  remind  you  that  I  still  hold  your  due-bill  for  the  sum 
of  Fifty  Dollars,  and  hope  you  will  give  it  early  attention,  as  I  am  just  now 
much  troubled  for  ready  money. 

Yours,  very  truly. 

To ,  Esq.  . 

In  answer  to  the  above. 

Dear  Sir — I  am  happy  in  being  able  to  inclose  you  the  sum  for  which  I 
have  been  already  too  long  your  debtor.  Assuring  you  that  unforeseen  dis- 
appointments have  been  the  sole  cause  of  want  of  punctuality. 
Believe  me. 
Dear  Sir, 

Your  obliged  and  faithful  servant, 

Delaying  the  Payment  of  a  Debt. 

Sir — I  really  must  beg  of  you  to  defer  the  settlement  of  your  account 
till  after  the  middle  of  next  month,  when  I  shall  be  in  a  condition  to 
meet  your  demand.  Regretting  that  circumstances  prevent  my  being  more 
prompt  in  attention  to  your  wishes, 

I  remain.  Sir, 

Your  obedient  servant, 
To  Mr. .  . 

Answer  to  a  Letter  soliciting  a  Loan,        ^ 

My  Dear  Sir, — I  have  just  received  your  letter  soliciting  the  loan  of 
Twenty  Dollars,  and  it  gives  me  much  pleasure  that  I  have  it  in  my  power 
to  be  able  to  accommodate  so  old  and  valued  a  friend.    I  therefore  lose  no 

time  in  forwarding  you  a  check  upon  Messrs.  for  the  above  sum, 

in  reimbursing  which  I  beg  you  will  suit  your  convenience,  and  thereby 
c  blige  Your  old  and 

Very  sincere  friend, 

To Esq.  . 

An  Invitation  to  a  Private  Dinner. 

Dbab :  My  old  friend is  coming  to  take  dinner  with  mo 

on ,  the  — th,  and  I  hope  you  will  come  and  join  us,  at  six  o'clock.    I 


820  KOTES,    CARDS,    ETC. 

know  you  are  not  partial  to  large  parties,  and  trust  you  will  think  xis  two 
sufficient  company.  Yours,  ever  truly, 

An  Inmtation  to  a  Pic-nic  Party. 

My  Bear  Sir — We  are  endeavoring  to  get  up  a  small  excursion  to  visit 

,  on  the  — th  of  this  month.     Will  you  do  us  the  favor  of  mak.ng  one 

of  our  number?     Mrs. ,  and  my  family,  send  their  compliments,  and 

request  me  to  mention  that  they  have  taken  upon  themselves  the  task  of 
providing  the  "  creature  comforts"  for  that  occasion,  and  trust  that  their 
exertions  will  meet  with  unanimous  approval.  Should  you  have  no  previ- 
ous engagement  for  that  day,  and  feel  disposed  to  join  our  party,  a  carriage 

will  be  at  your  door  by  —  o'clock  on morning ;  and  believe  me  to  be, 

My  dear  Sir, 

Yours,  most  sincerely, 

To ,  Esq.  . 

F.  8. — The  favor  of  an  early  answer  will  oblige. 

Notes,  Cards,  <fec. 

Camplimentary  cards  must  always  have  the  address,  &c., 
at  the  bottom. 

An  Inmtation  to  Dinner. 

Mr.  S.'s  compliments  to  Mr.  D.,  and  will  feel  much  pleasure  in  his  co-m- 
pany  to  dinner  on  Thursday  next,  at  six  o'clock.  An  early  reply  will 
oblige. 

Beply^  accepting  the  Inmtation, 

Mr.  D.  presents  his  compliments  to  Mr.  S.,  and  accepts  with  pleasure 
his  invitation  for  Thursday  next. 

Declining  the  Inmtation, 

Mr.  D.  presents  compliments  to  Mr.  S.,  and  much  regrets  that  a  previ- 
ous engagement  {or  continual  indisposition,  oi'  his  unavoidable  absence 
from  town)  will  prevent  him  from  joining  Mr.  S.'s  party  on  Thursday  next. 

Letters  of  Wm.  Cowper  and  of  Dr.  Samuel  Johnson. 
Wm,  Cowper  to  the  Rev.  John  Newton. 

July  12,  1781. 
My  very  dear  Friend — I  am  going  to  send  what,  when  you  have  read, 
you  may  scratch  your  head  and  say,  1  suppose,  there's  nobody  knows, 
whether  what  I  have  got,  be  verse  or  not — by  tlie  tune  and  the  time,  it 
ought  to  be  rhyme ;  but  if  it  be,  did  you  ever  see,  of  late  or  of  yare,  j*nch 
a  ditty  before  1 


LETTERS    OF   COWPER.  321 

X  have  writ  charity,  not  for  popularity,  but  as  well  as  I  could,  in  hopes 
to  do  good  ;  and  if  the  reviewer  should  say,  "  To  be  sure,  the  gentleman's 
muse  wears  Methodist  shoes,  you  may  know  by  her  pace,  and  talk  of 
grace,  that  she  and  her  bard  have  little  regard  for  the  taste  and  fash- 
ions, and  ruling  passions,  and  hoidening  play  of  the  modern  day;  and 
though  she  assume  a  borrowed  plume,  and  now  and  then  wear  a  tittering 
air,  'tis  only  her  plan  to  catch  if  she  can  the  giddy  and  gay,  as  they  go 
that  way,  by  a  production,  on  a  new  construction  ;  she  has  baited  her  tiap, 
in  hopes  to  snap  all  that  may  come,  with  a  sugar-plum.''  His  opinion  in 
this  will  not  be  amiss ;  'tis  what  I  intend  my  principal  end ;  and  if  I  suc- 
ceed, and  folks  should  read,  till  a  few  are  brought  to  a  serious  thought, 
1  should  think  I  am  paid,  for  all  I  have  said  and  all  I  have  done,  though  I 
have  run,  many  a  time,  after  a  rhyme,  as  far  as  from  hence  to  the  end  of 
my  sense,  and  by  hook  or  crook,  write  another  book,  if  I  live  and  am  here 
another  year. 

I  have  heard  before,  of  a  room  with  a  floor  laid  upon  springs,  and  such 
like  things,  with  so  much  art,  in  every  part,  that  when  you  went  in,  you 
were  forced  to  begin  a  minuet  pace,  with  an  air  and  a  grace,  swimming 
about,  now  in  and  now  out,  with  a  deal  of  state,  in  a  figure  of  eight,  with- 
out pipe  or  string,  or  any  such  thing  ;  and  now  I  have  writ,  in  a  rhyming  fit, 
what  will  make  you  dance,  and  as  you  advance,  will  keep  you  still,  though 
against  your  will,  dancing  away,  alert  and  gay,  till  you  come  to  an  end  of 
what  I  have  penned ;  which  that  you  may  do,  ere  Madam  and  you  are 
quite  worn  out  with  jogging  about,  I  take  my  leave,  and  here  you  receive, 
a  bow  profound,  down  to  the  ground,  from  your  humble  me, 

W.  C. 

Wm.  Cowper  to  Wm.  Hayley^  Esq. 

Weston,  ApHl  23,  1793. 
Mt  Dear  Friend  and  Brother — Better  late  than  never,  and  better  a 
little  than  none  at  all !  Had  I  been  at  liberty  to  consult  my  inclinations, 
I  would  have  answered  your  truly  kind  and  affectionate  letter  immediately. 
But  I  am  the  busiest  man  alive;  and  when  this  epistle  is  dispatched  you 
will  be  the  only  one  of  my  correspondents  to  whom  I  shall  not  be  indebted. 
While  I  write  this,  my  poor  Mary  sits  mute,  which  I  cannot  well  bear,  and 
which,  together  with  want  of  time  to  write  much,  will  have  a  curtailing  ef- 
fect on  my  epistle. 

My  only  studying  time  is  still  given  to  Homer,  not  to  correction  and 
amendment  of  him  (for  that  is  all  over),  but  to  writing  notes.  Johnson 
has  expressed  a  wish  for  some,  that  the  unlearned  may  be  a  little  illumi 
nated  concerning  classical  story  and  the  mythology  of  the  ancients ;  and 
his  behavior  to  me  has  been  so  liberal  that  I  can  refuse  him  nothing 
Poking  into  the  old  Greek  commentators  blinds  me.  But  it  is  no  matter 
1  am  the  more  like  Homer. 

Ever  yours,  my  dearest  Hayley, 

W.  C. 
14* 


322  COWPER   AND   JOHNSON. 


To  Lady  Hmheth. 

Huntingdon,  Oct.  10, 1765. 

My  Dear  Cousin — I  should  grumble  at  your  long  silence,  if  I  did  not 
know  that  one  may  love  one's  friends  very  well,  though  one  is  not  always 
m  the  humor  to  write  to  them.  Besides,  I  have  the  satisfaction  of  being 
perfectly  sure  that  you  have  at  least  twenty  times  recollected  the  debt  you 
owe  me,  and  as  often  resolved  to  pay  it ;  and  perhaps  while  you  remain 
Indebted  to  me,  you  think  of  me  twice  as  often  as  you  would  do  if  th 
account  was  clear.  These  are  the  reflections  with  which  I  comfort  myself 
a  ider  the  affliction  of  not  hearing  from  you  ;  my  temper  does  not  incline 
me  to  jealousy,  and  if  it  did,  I  should  set  all  right  by  having  recourse  to 
what  I  have  already  received  from  you. 

I  thank  God  for  your  friendship,  and  for  every  friend  I  have  ;  for  all  the 
pleasing  circurnjrtances  of  my  situation  here,  for  my  health  of  body,  and 
perfect  serehitv  >i  mind.  To  recollect  the  past,  and  compare  it  with  the 
present,  is  all  I  \  *ive  need  of  to  fill  me  with  gratitude ;  and  to  be  grateful 
is  to  be  happy.  Not  that  I  think  myself  sufficiently  thankful,  or  that  I 
shall  ever  be  st  in  this  life.  The  warmest  heart,  perhaps,  only  feels  by 
fits,  and  is  ofteij  as  insensible  as  the  coldest.  This  at  least  is  frequently 
the  case  with  mine,  and  oftener  than  it  should  be.  But  the  mercy  that 
can  forgive  iniquity  will  never  be  severe  to  mark  our  frailties ;  to  that 
mercy,  my  dear  cousin,  I  commend  you,  with  earnest  wishes  for  your  wel- 
fare, and  remain  your  affectionate 

W.  C. 

Dr.  Samuel  Johnson  to  Miss  Susanna  Thrale. 

Dearest  Miss  Susy — When  you  favored  me  with  your  letter,  you  seemea 
to  be  in  want  of  materials  to  fill  it,  having  met  with  no  great  adventures 
either  of  peril  or  delight,  nor  done  nor  suffered  any  thing  out  of  the  com- 
mon course  of  life. 

When  you  have  lived  longer,  and  considered  more,  you  will  find  the 
common  course  of  life  very  fertile  of  observation  and  reflection.  Upon 
the  common  course  of  life  must  our  thoughts  and  our  conversation  be  gen- 
erally employed.  Our  general  course  of  life  must  denominate  us  wise  or 
foolish,  happy  or  miserable.  If  it  is  well  regulated,  we  pass  on  prosper- 
ously and  smoothly ;  as  it  is  neglected,  we  live  in  embarrassment,  perplex- 
ity, and  uneasiness. 

Your  time,  my  love,  passes,  I  suppose,  in  devotion,  reading,  work,  and 
company.  Of  your  devotions,  in  which  I  earnestly  advise  you  to  be  very 
punctual,  you  may  not  perhaps  think  it  proper  to  give  me  an  account ;  and 
of  work,  unless  I  understood  it  better,  it  will  be  of  no  great  use  to  say 
much ;  but  books  and  company  will  always  supply  you  with  materials  for 
your  letters  to  me,  as  I  shall  always  be  pleased  to  know  what  you  are 
reading,  and  with  what  you  are  pleased ;  and  shall  take  great  delight  in 
knowing  what  impressions  new  modes  and  new  characters  make  upon  you, 


FORMS   IN   CLOSING  A   LETTER.  323 

and  to  observe  with  what  attention  you  distinguish  the  tempe  -s,  disposi- 
tions, and  abilities  of  your  companions. 

A  letter  may  be  always  made  out  of  the  books  of  the  morning,  or  talk  of 
the  evening,  and  any  letters  from  you,  my  dearest,  will  be  welcome  to 

Your,  &c.,  S.  J. 

T\iQ  formula  at  the  dose  of  a  letter  deserves  considerar 
Lie  attention.  The  following  forms,  taken  from  the  letters 
of  distinguished  writers,  may  prove  useful  and  instructive : 

Fi'om  Lady  RusseU:  "In  all  circumstances  I  remain,  Sir,  your  constantly 
obliged  friend  and  servant."  

From  Mr.  John  Locke:  "  I  shall  be  very  glad  if,  in  this,  or  any  other 
occasion,  I  may  be  able  to  do  you  any  service ;  for  with  great  sincerity  and 
respect  I  am.  Sir,  your  most  humble  servant."  

From  Lord  Shaftesbury :  "  So  farewell.  I  am  your  good  friend  to  servo 
you."  -  — 

From  the  same:  "  And  so  God  prosper  you."  

From  the  sa7ne :  "Continue  to  inform  me  of  your  reading  and  of  new 
books ;  and  God  be  with  you."  

From  Dr.  Doddridge:  "Not  merely  in  form,  but  with  the  utmost  sincer- 
ity and  tenderness  of  heart,  I  am,  dear  Sir,  your  most  faithful  and  affec- 
tionate friend,  and  humble  servant."  

From  Nathaniel  Neal :  "I  am,  my  dear  and  worthy  friend,  most  faith 
fully  and  entirely  yours."  


From  Wm,  Ootoper:  "  Yours,  my  dear  friend," 

**  Yours  ever." 

"Believe  me,  my  dekr  friend. 

Affectionately  yours," 


W.  C. 

w.  c. 

w.  c. 


"  1  love  you  and  yours ;  I  thank  you  for  your  continuec  remembrance 
of  me,  and  shall  not  cease  to  be  their  and  your 

Affectionate  friend  and  servant," 


"  Yours,  faithfully," 

fhm  WiUiam  Wirt: 

"  In  haste, 

Yours  affectionately," 


W.  C. 

w.  c. 
w.  w. 


w.^ 


324  ESSAYS,    ETC. 

"  I  am  yours,  as  always," 

**  Very  sincerely, 

Your  friend  and  obedient  servant," 

"  Yours," 

"  Our  love  to  you  all," 

'*  God  bless  you  for  ever  and  ever," 

**  I  am — why  need  I  tell  you  what !" 

"Love  to  all, 

Again,  yours," 

"  Your  ever  affectionate  friend," 

"  Our  love  attend  you  all. 

Your  friend,  as  ever,  till  death," 
/Vom  Thomas  Jefferson : 

"Accept  the  assurance  of  my  constant  friendship  and  respect," 

Th.  J. 


w. 

w. 

w. 

w. 

w. 

w. 

w. 

w. 

w. 

w. 

w. 

w. 

w. 

w. 

w. 

w. 

LESSON  GXXXIX. 

ESSAYS,    DISSERTATIONS,    ETC. 

Under  this  term  are  included  writings  different  in  char- 
acter and  design,  and  of  all  degrees  of  merit,  ranging 
from  the  early  productions  of  the  school-room,  to  the  most 
refined  performances  of  the  skilful  writer.  The  term  sig- 
nifies an  attempt  or  experiment  in  the  elucidation  of  some 
subject,  and  is  generally  applied  to  short  and  unpretending 
pieces,  illustrative  of  some  phases  of  life,  manners,  or  morals 
— or  some  sketches  and  criticisms  of  literary  matters,  such 
as  appear  in  the  papers  of  the  Spectator^  and  in  the  more 
modern  Review  and  Magazine,  in  the  editorials  and  some 
other  articles  of  the  newspaper. 

An  elaborate  and  systematic  essay  bears  the  name  of  Treatue^ 
'■»r,  where  it  is  brief,  of  Tract 


OORRECTION    AND   REVISION.  31^5 

A  Thesis  or  Dissertation  is  an  argumentative  discussion  of 
some  question  or  proposition  in  literature,  science,  or  theology. 

The  term  Disquisition  is  applied  to  an  argumentative  discussion 
that  is  more  limited  in  its  range  of  topics  than  the  Thesis,  or  Dis- 
sertation. 

The  term  Disputation  is  applied  to  oral  reasonings  conducted 
on  opposite  sides  of  some  question  of  philosophy,  law,  politics,  or 
religion. 

Suggestions  to  the  Teacher  in  Coreeoting  Compositions. 

1.  The  teacher,  in  the  amount  of  correction  bestowed,  should 
have  respect  to  the  age  and  progress  of  the  pupil  in  composition. 
With  beginners,  the  less  change  that  is  made  in  correcting  the 
composition,  consistent  with  perspicuity  and  correctness,  the  bet- 
ter ;  for  too  great  a  change  might  discourage  eflfort.  We  must 
allow  the  writer  to  express  his  own  ideas,  and  only  make  such 
slight  alterations  in  the  form  of  expression  as  the  rules  of  good 
composition  render  imperative.  Witli  more  advanced  writers, 
whatever  changes  are  needed,  not  only  for  correctness,  but  for 
elegance,  may  properly  be  suggested. 

2.  It  will  be  found  advantageous  to  read  before  the  class  what- 
ever important  blemishes  have  been  found  in  each  composition, 
withholding,  however,  the  name  of  the  writer ;  and  the  class 
should  be  requested  to  propose  corrections  in  spelling,  construc-^ 
tion,  ideas,  or  any  thing  else  needing  correction. 

3.  After  such  corrections  have  been  made,  the  composition 
should  be  copied  correctly  in  a  book  provided  for  that  purpose, 
and  preserved  for  future  comparison  with  subsequent  productions. 
The  labor,  and  care,  and  time  thus  employed  will  be  well  rewarded 
by  the  beneficial  effect  in  securing  greater  accuracy  and  excellence 
in  future  essays. 

DiREOTIONS   FOR   THE   REVISION    OF    A.  COMPOSITION. 

1.  For  the  convenience  of  the  writer,  it  is  best  to  write  upon 
letter-sheets  of  the  ordinary  size,  leaving  a  considerable  margin  oi 
the  left  and  right  hand  of  the  page  for  corrections,  should  they  be 
found  necessary. 

2.  Among  the  things  requiring  attention  in  revising,  are  these — 


326  SUGGESTIVE   QUESTIONS 

the  spelling,  the  punctuation,  the  use  of  capital  letters,  quotation 
marks,  apostrophe  of  the  possessive  case,  observance  of  grammat- 
ical rules,  and  rules  for  Purity,  Propriety,  Precision,  Unity,  and 
Harmony  ;  also,  correctness  in  the  use  of  the  figures  of  speech.  It 
must  be  ascertained,  also,  whether  some  of  the  sentences  are  not 
too  long,  or  faulty  in  construction,  and  whether  they  are  properly 
arranged  into  paragraphs.  It  is  important  to  make  a  proper  divi- 
sion of  a  word,  according  to  its  syllables,  when  room  cannot  bo 
found  for  the  whole  of  it  at  the  end  of  a  line.  After  the  syllable 
or  syllables  at  the  end  of  a  line,  must  be  placed  a  hyphen  (-) ;  it 
must  not  be  placed  in  the  midst  of  the  letters  of  a  syllable. 

After  the  writer  has  carefully  revised  the  composition,  and 
made  it  clear  of  all  ambiguity,  obscurities,  and  other  blemishes,  as 
far  as  he  is  able,  a  correct  and  handsome  copy  of  it  should  be 
made,  to  be  submitted  to  the  teacher,  leaving  two  inches  of  mar- 
gin on  one  or  both  sides  of  each  page,  as  space  for  the  corrections 
which  the  teacher  may  find  it  necessary  to  supply. 


LESSON    GXL. 

"topics"  SUGGESTIVE    OF   IDEAS. 

[These  topics  are  derived  from  Sturtevant's  "  Preacher's 
Manual,"  and  presented  in  a  condensed  form.] 

1.  There  are  certain  questions^  which,  on  entering  upon 
the  consideration  of  a  subject,  should  be  proposed  to  one's 
self,  as  means  of  eliciting  or  directing  thought.  These 
are — 

(1.)  Who  t  referring  to  the  agent— the  person  who  has  done  or  spoken 
such  a  thing. 

(2.)    What?    What  has  he  done  or  said ? 

(3.)  Where  f  Where  did  the  action  take  place,  or  where  were  the  words 
spoken  ? 

(4.)  By  what  means  ?  By  what  means  was  the  action  done,  or  by  whose 
authority  was  the  thing  said  ? 

(5.)  For  whom  t    For  whom,  or  for  what,  was  the  act  done,  or  the  utLtr 


SUGGESTIVE   "TOPICS."  327 

ance  made  ?  Was  it  done  for  his  own  personal  benefit,  or  for  the  honor 
and  advantage  of  another  ? 

(6.)  How  ?  How  was  thft  act  done  ?  how  were  the  words  spoken — openly 
or  privately  '\  Was  it  done  partially  or  thoroughly  %  In  what  temper  and 
frame  of  mind  ? 

(7.)    When?    When  was  the  thing  done  or  said  ? 

(8.)   Why  f    From  what  motives,  and  with  what  results  in  view  ? 

Some  of  these  questions  are  involved  in  the  Topics  now 
to  be  considered,  but  they  are  given  here  together  as  a 
matter  of  convenience  in  thinking  upon  ordinary  subjects. 

2.  JRise  from,  Species  to  Genus. — For  example,  we  read 
in  Ps.  1.  14,  oi  the  particular  offering  of  thanksgiving ;  this 
may  lead  us  to  reflect  on  the  nature  and  design  of  sacrifices 
in  general^  and  to  treat  the  subject  thus : 

1.  Consider  the  general  history  of  sacrifice^ — 

From  Abel's  time  to  Moses,  including  the  age  of  Job. 
From  Moses  to  Christ. 

2.  Their  real  design  and  instructive  lessons. 
8.  Their  adaptation  to  such  design. 

4.  Their  utility  to  us. 

3.  Descend  from  Genus  to  Species — from  the  more  gen- 
eral to  the  more  particular : 

Dr.  Blair,  on  Phil.  iv.  5.  Moderation  is  the  genus.  He  says,  exercise 
moderation:  1.  In  your  wishes;  2.  In  your  pursuits ;  3.  In  your  expecta- 
tions ;  4.  In  jour  pleasures  ;  5.  In  the  indulgence  of  your  passions. 

4.  The  various  particulars  belonging  to  the  thing  de- 
scribed.— These  may  be  presented  in  a  descriptive,  a  pliilo- 
Bophical,  or  an  historical  manner. 


LESSON    GXLI. 

"topics"    SUGGESTIVE   OF   IDEAS. 

6.   Observe  the  Melati07i  of  one  subject  to  others. 

Thus  the  idea  of  God  as  a  Father^  suggests  our  obligations  and 
duties  to  him  as  Children  ;   the  idea  of  Him  as  a  Sovereign^ 


328  SUGGESTIVE   "TOPICS." 

suggests  our  duty  of  respect  and  obedience  as  Subjects ;  if  he 
is  held  up  to  us  as  our  Master^  this  suggests  our  duty  as  Ser- 
vants. 

Doctrine  is  related  to  oth^v  doctrine  ;  doctrine  to  precept ;  privi- 
lege to  obligation  ;  promises  to  threatenings  ;  hope  suggests  fear ,  I 
joy,  sorrow,  &c.  ^ 

Types,  in  Scripture,  suggest  their  antitypes ;  this  includes  typi-  . 
cal  persons,  typical  institutions,  and  typical  event'?. 

6,  Observe  whether  some  things  be  not  supposed  which 
are  not  expressed. 

Thus,  an  arrival  at  a  certain  place  supposes  a  place  of  setting 
out;  a  covenant  supposes  contracting  parties;  a  reconciliation 
supposes  previous  contest  or  ill-feeling;  a  victory  supposes  ene- 
mies, arms,  combat,  loss  of  territory,  &c. 

A  sermon  is  often  properly  treated  under  the  two  heads,  of  (1) 
what  is  implied  ;  (2)  what  is  expressed. 

Example  from  Eph.  vi.  10:  "Be  strong  in  the  Lord."  I.  What  is  im- 
plied in  the  words — (1)  That  Christians  have  need  of  strength;  (2)  That 
they  have  no  strength  in  themselves ;  (3)  That  there  is  enough  in  Christ 
Jesus  the  Lord.  II,  What  is  expressed,  "  Be  strong,"  &c.  There  are  two 
things  to  which  these  words  exhort  us — (1)  To  rely  on  Christ  for  strength ; 
(2)  To  do  this  with  assured  confidence. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  is  useful  sometimes  to  consider  what  is 
not  implied  in  any  given  declaration,  or  text  of  Scripture ;  or  to 
point  out  in  what  senses  it  is  not  true^  as  John  xvii.  16 ;  what  sins 
are  not  included  in  some  general  expression,  as  Heb.  x.  29,  &c. 

7.  Reflect  on  the  person  speaking  or  acting. 

Thus :  Whether  they  be  wise  or  unwise ;  learned  or  ignorant ;  righteous 
or  wicked  ;  angels  or  men  ;  chief  or  subordinate ;  venerable  or  otherwise ; 
old  or  young;  whether  they  have  proper  authority  to  say  or  do  what  ia 
referred  to ;  whether  their  example  be  salutary  or  the  reverse ;  what  rea-' 
sons  existed  to  show  the  propriety  or  impropriety  of  words  uttered  or 
actions  performed  by  them. 

In  our  estimate  of  character,  we  must  discriminate  between  such 
acts  as  are  done  after  mature  consideration,  and  such  as  are  done 
hastily.  We  can  best  judge  of  character  when  restraints  are  re- 
moved— when  a  change  of  situation  takes  place,  and  when  per- 
sons suppose  themselves  to  be  unobserved.     It  is  also  discovered. 


SUGGESTIVE   "TOPICS."  329 

under  afflictions  and  uniisnal  trials.  In  drawing  a  portraiture  of 
character,  the  influence  of  bad  associates  or  instructions  should  be 
noticed. 


LESSON  GXLII. 

"topics"  suggestive  of  ideas. 

8.  The  State  of  the  Persons  speaking  or  acting. 

When  Paul  addressed  Felix,  with  the  chain  upon  his  a/rm^  and 
the  tyrant's  sword  over  his  head,  his  speech  had  infinitely  greatei 
power  and  authority  than  if  he  had  addressed  a  letter  to  Felix 
from  a  place  of  safety.  So  when  Paul,  writing  to  the  Philippians 
in  a  prison  at  Rome,  says,  "  I  have  learned,  in  whatsoever  state  I 
am,  therewith  to  be  content"  (Phil.  iv.  11),  the  declaration 
challenges  our  immediate  belief. 

The  use  of  this  topic  is,  principally,  to  suggest  observations 
adapted  either  to  give  force  to  any  precept,  admonition,  or  re- 
proof, or  to  illustrate  some  part  of  the  subject. 

9.  JRemarJc  the  Time  of  a  word  or  action, 

A  consideration  of  the  time  when  an  action  was  performed,  a 
duty  enjoined,  a  caution  or  a  promise  given,  &c.,  frequently 
throws  strong  light  upon  the  action  or  expression,  enables  us  to 
see  it  under  a  new  aspect,  to  perceive  its  propriety,  and  more 
deeply  to  feel  its  force. 

The  choice  of  Moses  (Heb.  xi.  24,  25)  receives  great  illustration  from  a 
notice  of  the  time  when  it  was  made :  not  in  his  minority,  but  when  he 
was  mature  and  capable  of  judging  calmly ;  also,  when  he  was  surrounded 
by  the  luxuries  of  an  Egyptian  court,  and  was  heir  Apparent  to  the  Egyp- 
tian sceptre ;  and  further,  when  his  people  were  oppressed  and  enslaved, 
and  he  must  calculate  on  sharing  their  afflictions. 

10.  Observe  Place, 

11.  Persons  addressed^  and  the  State  of  Persons  ad- 
dressed. 

Take  Kom.  xii.  17,  as  an  example :  '*  Recompense  to  no  man  evil  for 
evil."    This  was  addressed  to  Romans,  whose  maxim  it  wa**  to  revenge 


330 

poverely  all  public  injuries,  and  the  same  course  probably  was  pursued  in 
regard  to  private  ones. 

Again,  the  Koman  Christians  were  at  that  time  greatly  persecuted,  and 
that  by  the  Jews,  against  whom  it  would  have  been  easy  to  excite  the 
heathen  Eomans  as  being  the  objects  of  their  dislike  and  hatred.  Hence 
the  precept  means,  "  hurt  not  the  most  violent  enemies  of  Christ,  his  gos- 
pel, and  yourselves." 

The  distinct  characteristics  of  persons  addressed  should  be  kept  in  view ; 
also,  the  state  of  persons  as  to  worldly  circumstances — wealth,  informar 
tion,  &c.  The  considerations  presented  must  be  suited  to  these  varieties, 
in  order  to  make  a  suitable  impression. 

12.   Consider  the  principles  of  a  loord  or  action. 

In  other  words,  consider  the  source  or  origin  v/henoe  they  pro- 
ceeded— that,  in  consequence  of  which  the  word  was  spoken  or 
the  action  done.  So  the  Scriptures  proceed  on  the  principle  that 
man  is  a  degraded,  ignorant,  and  guilty  being.  This  is  assumed  in 
all  its  dootrines,  precepts,  promises,  &c. 


LESSON    CXLIII. 

"topics"  suggestive  of  ideas. 

13.  Consider  consequences  and  inferences. 

This  is  the  converse  of  the  preceding  topic,  and  leads  us  to  point 
out  the  effects,  the  good  or  evil  consequences,  immediate  or  remote, 
which  follow  a  word  or  an  act. 

The  inferences  that  may  be  drawn  from  any  doctrine  or  precept, 
are  to  be  considered.  You  must  so  write  as  to  leave  no  just 
grounds  for  the  objections  of  an  opponent;  and  if  he  charges  your 
opinions  with  bad  eonsequences,  you  must  not  only  disprove  the 
allegation,  but  prove  on  the  other  hand  that  good  consequences 
will  flow  from  them. 

14.  Reflect  on  the  purpose  or  design  of  a  word  or 
action. 

Says  Pope:  "In  every  work  consult  the  author's  end."  To  be 
acquainted  with  the  scope  of  his  writing,  or  the  end  he  had  in 
view,  is  to  possess  a  key  to  all  that  he  says. 


SUGGESTIVE    "TOPICS."  331 

The  scope  or  intention  of  a  book  or  passage,  may  be  col- 
lected : 

(1)  From  the  author's  express  mention  of  it  somewhere ;  (2)  from  some 
declaration  which  exhibits  the  reason  or  occasion  of  a  book  or  passage  be- 
ing written  ;  (3)  from  considerations  growing  out  of  the  state  of  the  per- 
sons to  whom  the  writing  was  originally  addressed.  Thus  you  will  dis- 
cover the  scope  of  Paul  in  his  letter  to  the  Hebrews,  by  attending  to  the 
distressed  condition  of  the  people  addressed ;  (4)  from  the  known  errorf: 
of  the  times ;  (5)  from  some  conclusions  drawn  from  any  argument ;  (6) 
from  the  general  drift  or  tenor  of  a  book. 

The  "  end  proposed?'*  will  suggest  the  best  method  of 
treating  many  subjects. 

Dr.  Blair,  on  Eccl.  vii.  2-4 :  "  It  is  better  to  go  to  the  house  of  mourn- 
ing," &c. ;  that  is,  viewing  the  end  proposed,  it  is  so.  That  end  is  the 
improvement  of  the  heart ;  to  this  end  the  whole  discourse  inclines.  (1) 
Tlie  house  of  mourning  gives  some  check  to  levity ;  (2)  It  awakens  senti- 
ments of  piety ;  (3)  It  arouses  our  sensibilities  and  sympathies  toward  sut- 
ferers ;  (4)  It  gives  seasonable  admonitions  to  prepare  for  what  may  soon 
be  our  own  state ;  (5)  Excessive  fondness  for  life  will  thereby  be  mod- 
erated. 


LESSON  CXLIV. 

"topics"  suggestive  of  ideas. 

15.  Consider  whether  there  he  any  thing  remarkable  in 
the  manner  of  a  speech  or  action. 

This  may  be  illustrated  in  passages  from  Scripture.  John  iii.  16 : 
**  God  80  loved,"  &c.  By  the  word  «o,  greater  emphasis  is  given  to  the  ex- 
Dression  of  God's  love  and  God's  great  gift,  than  could  be  given  by  any 
more  definite  expression. — Mai.  iii.  16:  ''''Then  those  that  feared  the 
Lord,"  &c.     Then  is  emphatic,  for  it  was  a  time  of  great  degeneracy. 

Besides  single  words^  noticed  in  the  above  examples,  this  Topic 
Includes  the  notice  of  phrases  and  sentences  in  which  the  style  or 
manner  of  expression  may  be  in  any  degree  remarkable. 

16.  Compare  words  and  actions  with  similar  words  and 
actions. 

Suppose  the  character  of  Martha,  the  sister  of  Lazarus,  were  the  flubiect 


332 

of  a  composition  or  discourse ;  you  would  naturally  compare  her  conduct 
with  that  of  Mary,  and  show  the  superiority  of  the  latter. 

If  the  Philippian  jailer  were  the  subject,  he  might  be  compared,  in  his 
conversion,  with  the  publican  Zaccheus,  in  this  respect,  that  each  had  his 
prominent  sin  subdued — cruelty,  in  the  former ;  avarice  and  injustice  in 
the  latter. 

Passages  of  Scripture  may  also  be  compared  with  others,  in 
which  some  synonymous  expressions  are  employed,  whether  with 
a  view  to  elucidate  the  meaning,  or  for  the  purpose  of  furnishing 
materials  for  comment  or  illustration. 

Passages  of  Scripture  that  treat  upon  the  threatenings  of  God 
may  be  compared  with  those  which  record  their  fulfilment,  or 
which  show  that  the  threatenings  have  been  suspended  or  re- 
versed. 

So,  also,  passages  containing  divine  commands  may  be  compared 
with  others  which  promise  the  grace  that  is  needful  to  obedience. 

Comparison  may  also  he  made  with  nature. 

As  Dr.  Jortin  observes :  "  Every  creature  conveys  some  useful  doctrine. 
We  may  learn  constancy  from  the  sun,  moon,  and  stars,  which  keep  their 
appointed  course.  We  may  learn  honesty  and  gratitude  from  the  earth, 
which  faithfully  preserves  what  is  committed  to  her  care,  and  repays  oui 
labor  with  interest.  We  may  learn  industry  from  the  animals  which  pro 
vide  against  hunger,  change  of  seasons,  and  the  assaults  of  enemies.  We 
may  learn  obedience  and  obligation  from  the  domestic  animals,  which  love 
their  master  and  serve  him  in  their  respective  characters." 

1 7.  HemarJc  the  differences  of  words  and  actions  on  dif 
ferent  occasions. 

Seeming  differences  in  Scripture  are  reconciled  by  showing  that  on  dif 
ferent  occasions  it  was  proper  to  say  and  unsay,  to  allow  and  disallow,  Ui 
establish  an  economy  and  to  dissolve  it.  God  commanded  certain  da'l/ 
sacrifices  to  be  offered  under  the  law  ;  yet,  by  his  prophets,  he  declaree  nk. 
abhorrence  of  them,  because  abused  and  perverted  from  their  proper  «iiid. 
The  brazen  serpent  was  to  be  preserved  as  a  memorial  in  the  ho^y  piuce; 
and  yet,  for  good  reasons,  Hezekiah,  in  God's  behalf,  broke  it  m  pieces. 
In  the  Patriarchal  state  one  code  of  laws  was  necessary ;  under  tLt  Mosaic 
dispensation,  another  ;  and  afterwards,  under  the  Gospel,  a  third-,  differin/yr 
circumstantially  from  both  the  former.  Different  occasions  demanded  dif 
ferent  modes  of  address ;  hence,  we  meet  with  these. 


SUGGESTIVE   '^  TOPICS/'  333 


LESSON  CXLV. 

"topics"  suggestive  of  ideas. 

18,  Contrast  words  and  actions. 

Divine  revelation  is  illustrated  by  contrasting  it  with  any  sys- 
tem of  false  religion,  or  with  Judaism.  So,  the  character  of  true 
ministers  may  be  contrasted  with  that  of  pretenders  ;  the  wisdom 
of  Providence  with  the  folly  of  those  who  complain  of  it,  &c. 

The  volumes  of  nature  and  of  providence  abound  in  materials* 
for  contrast,  in  expressing  spiritual  ideas;  day  and  night,  light 
and  darkness,  winter  and  summer,  &c. ;  barren  and  fruitful  soils, 
lofty  mountains  and  deep  valleys  ;  animals,  fierce  and  tame,  large 
and  minute ;  vegetables,  bitter  and  sweet,  &c. 

An  example  of  contrast  is  furnished  in  a  sermon  of  Mr.  Jay,  on  Eom.  v. 
6 :  *'  Hope  maketh  not  ashamed."  Here  the  words  not  ashamed  suggested 
the  antithesis,  for  if  the  Christian's  hope  be  distinguished  as  one  which 
maketh  not  ashamed,  it  is  implied  that  all  other  hopes  make  ashamed.  Ho 
says : 

I.  Certain  kinds  of  hope  do  make  ashamed. 

(1)  The  hope  of  the  worldling,  by  the  insufficiency  of  its  objects. 

(2)  That  of  the  Pharisee,  by  the  weakness  of  its  foundation. 

(3)  That  of  the  Antinomian,  by  the  falseness  of  its  warrant. 

II.  The  believer's,  on  the  contrary,  "  maketh  not  ashamed." 

(1)  It  is  accompanied  by  divine  love. 

(2)  This  love  characterizes  its  possessors. 

(8)  It  qualifies  for  that  future  glory  upon  which  its  interests  are  fixed. 

19.  Mcamine  the  grounds  of  an  action  or  expression^ 
and  show  the  truth  or  equity  of  it. 

In  treating  of  the  Resurrection  or  Ascension  of  Christ,  show  the 
credibility  of  the  testimony  in  support  of  them.  In  treating  of 
predictions,  bring  forward  history  to  prove  their  fulfilment,  or 
show,  by  argument,  the  divine  wisdom  in  such  utterances. 

It  is  especially  necessary  to  use  this  topic  when  any  thing  un 
common,  surprising,  or  hard  to  credit,  is  in  question ;  or  when 
any  difficult  or  disagreeable  duty  is  urged. 

This  topic  comprehends  all  the  points  of  consideration  on  which 


334  SUGGESTIVE 

any  doctrine  or  practice  is  founded — the  proofs  or  arguments  by 
which  any  truth  is  supported,  or  any  practice  enforced.  This 
topic  may  also  be  turned  against  error,  false  grounds,  and  vain 
pretences. 

20.  Remarh  the  good  and  the  had  in  exjf/ressions  and  ao 


This  topic  is  of  great  use  in  explaining  the  histories  of  the  Bible, 
wherein  you  will  sometimes  find  a  record  of  mixed,  words  and  ac- 
tions, proceeding  from  good  principles,  yet  displaying  much  weak- 
ness and  infirmity. 

For  example,  in  Matt.  xvi.  22  :  "  Then  Peter  took  him,  and  began  to  re- 
buke him,  saying,  Be  it  far  from  thee.  Lord,"  &c.,  you  may  observe  what 
there  is  good,  and  what  is  bad  in  this  language.  1.  You  see  his  love  to  his 
Master.  2.  Not  a  cold  and  lukewarm  regard,  but  a  most  lively  affection. 
8.  An  honest  freedom.  4.  A  strong  faith  in  his  Master's  power.  But,  on 
the  other  hand,  you  see  1.  Gross  ignorance  of  the  plan  of  redemption. 
2.  Low  views  of  the  true  glory  of  Christ,  as  secured,  not  by  preservation  of 
the  temporal  life,  but  by  achieving  man's  salvation.  3.  A  troublesome 
and  criminal  boldness,  implying  that  he  was  wiser  than  his  Master.  4.  Pe- 
ter seems  to  have  imagined  that  his  Saviour  was  laboring  under  timid  ap- 
prehensions of  danger,  and  he  labors  to  cheer  him  up,  as  we  do  those  whose 
fears  exceed  the  bounds  of  reason. 

The  excellencies  and  deformities  of  human  character,  the  mix 
ture  of  truth  and  error  in  human  sentiments,  open  a  wide  field  of 
profitable  observation  and  comment.  Only  one  character  of  un- 
mixed excellence  is  presented  in  the  character  of  Jesus. 


LESSON    CXLVI. 

"topics"  suggestive  op  ideas. 

21,  Suppose  things. 

To  disprove,  for  instance,  the  merit  of  good  works,  you  may 
say :  Suppose  that  Christ  and  his  Apostles  held  and  taught  the 
doctrine,  would  Jesus  then  have  said,  "  When  you  have  done  all 
these  things,  say.  We  are  unprofitable  servants?"  or  would  he 
have  said  that  the  miserable  publican  went  down  to  his  house 


SUGGESTIVE    "  TOPICS."  335 

justified,  rather  than  the  Pharisee  who  gloried  in  his  works  ?  or 
would  the  Apostle  have  said,  "If  it  be  by  grace,  it  is  no  more  q\ 
works,"  "You  are  saved  by  grace,  through  faith,"  "Not  of  works 
lest  any  man  should  boast  ?" 

In  matters  of  controversy,  suppositions  are  raised  to  throw  an 
opponent  into  a  dilemma,  and  to  show  that  his  conclusions  are 
irreconcilable  with  things  which  he  cannot  but  admit,  or  that 
they  are  contrary  to  common-sense. 

22.   Guard  against  objections. 

The  objections  referred  to  must  be  natural  and  popular,  not  tar- 
fetched,  nor  too  philosophical ;  in  a  word,  they  must  be  such  as 
it  is  absolutely  necessary  to  notice  and  refute.  It  is  never  ad- 
visable to  state  objections,  and  defer  the  answers  to  them  to 
another  opportunity.  Answer  them  directly,  forcibly,  and  fully. 
Oare  must  be  taken  not  to  violate  the  rules  of  candor,  and  to  re- 
fute objections  by  clear  and  sober  arguments,  such  as  the  people 
can  understand. 

2  3 .  Consider  characters  of  m ajesty^  meanness^  infirmity^ 
necessity^  utility^  evidence^  &g. 

Thus,  John  xiv.  1 :  "  Let  not  your  heart  be  troubled ;  you  believe  in 
God,  believe  also  in  me."  These  words  are  characterized  by  a  majesty 
which  exalts  Jesus  Christ  above  all  ordinary  pastors  and  above  all  the 
prophets  ;  also  by  especial  tenderness  and  love  to  his  disciples. 

In  Acts  i.  6  :  "  Wilt  thou  at  this  time  restore  the  kingdom  to  Israel  V* 
may  be  observed  characters  of  meanness  and  infirmity.  Even  after  th<^ 
resurrection  of  Jesus  they  retained  their  low  and  carnal  idea  of  a  temporal 
Messiah.  You  also  see  a  rash  curiosity  in  prying  into  the  future  which 
God  had  seen  fit  not  to  reveal. 

In  regard  to  necessity.,  utility.,  and  evidence,  these  may  be  ex- 
hibited in  relation  to  certain  doctrines,  precepts,  facts,  promises, 
&c.,  of  the  Bible. 

24,  JRemark  degrees. 

There  are  in  a  passage  degrees  of  majesty,  meanness,  necessity 
&c. 

25.  Observe  different  interests. 

Thus,  iu  explaining  the  miracle  wrought  by  Christ  on  the  Sabbath  day 


336  SUGGESTIVE   "TOPICS." 

when  he  healed  the  withered  hand  in  the  presence  of  the  Herodians  and 
Pharisees,  this  topic  leads  us  to  notice  the  different  kinds  of  interest  with 
which  these  various  classes  would  regard  the  event,  in  consequence  of  their 
several  peculiarities  of  education  and  opinion. 


LESSON  CXLVII. 

"topics"  suggestive  of  ideas. 
26.  Distinguish^  Define^  Divide. 

1.  We  distinguish.,  when  we  consider  a  thing  in  differ- 
ent views. 

Thus,  Christian  faith  may  be  considered  with  a  view  to  justiji- 
cation.,  or  with  a  view  to  sanctification.  In  the  former  view  it  is 
opposed  to  works,  and  in  the  latter  it  is  the  principle  and  cause 
of  good  works.  So  a  man  may  be  considered  with  reference  to 
civil  society^  or  with  reference  to  cJiurcli  fellowship. 

Pleaders  at  the  bar  often  make  use  of  this  topic : 

"  Gentlemen  of  the  jury,  what  my  learned  brother  has  told  you  is,  no 
doubt,  perfectly  correct,  according  to  the  cases  which  he  has  cited;  but 
these  cases  turned  upon  a  different  point,  and  have  no  relation  to  the  point 
you  are  called  upon  to  decide.  The  circumstances  also  of  the  one  and  the 
other  are  quite  different,  and  require  a  very  different  decision."  So  with 
regard  to  disputed  doctrines  of  philosophy  or  religion. 

The  confounding  of  one  subject  with  another  has  given  rise  to 
most  of  the  errors  which  are  to  be  found  in  the  Christian  Church, 
as  where  penance  is  confounded  with  repentance,  and  the  absolu- 
tion of  the  priest  with  the  pardon  of  heaven. 

Whenever  we  perceive  a  subject  to  possess  several  qualities  dif- 
fering much  from  one  another,  we  must,  in  the  first  place,  dis- 
tinguish them.  Where  one  subject  possesses  properties  which  bear 
some  general  resemblance  to  those  of  other  subjects,  this  topic  is 
also  required. 

2.  Define,  To  impart  our  ideas  to  others  with  clearness 
and  force,  we  must  not  only  distinguish  them  from  other 
ideas  with  which  they  may  have  been  confounded,  but  we 
must  proceed  to  define  what  is  thus  distinguished. 


DEFINITION    AND   DIVISION.  337 

The  neglect  J  this  has  given  rise  to  much  misapprehension  and 
angry  debate.  Men  have  thus  failed  to  understand  each  other's 
meaning.     A  leading  cause  of  this  is  a  careless  use  of  language. 

Dr,  Watts'  JSules  for  a  just  Dejinitioru,  are:  (1.)  It  must  he 
universal  or  adequate.  (2.)  It  must  be  proper  and  peculiar  to  the 
thing  defined,  and  agree  to  that  alone.  (3.)  It  must  be  clear  and 
plain.  (4.)  It  must  be  short,  and  have  no  superfluous  words.  (5.) 
Neither  the  thing  defined,  nor  a  mere  synonymous  term,  should 
make  any  part  of  the  definition. 

A  beautiful  example  of  definition  !«  given  in  1  Cor,  xiii.;  aaiother  in  th« 
first  chapter  of  the  Epistle  of  James. 

In  order  to  form  a  definition^  we  raust — (1.)  Compare  the  thing 
to  be  defined  with  other  things  that  are  most  like  itself,  and  see 
wherein  its  essence  or  nature  agrees  with  them.  This  is  the  gen- 
eral nature,  or  genus^  in  a  definition.  Thus,  wine  agrees  essentially 
with  cider,  perry,  &c.,  in  being  a  sort  of  juice.  (2.)  Oonsider  the 
most  remarkable  and  primary  attribate,  property,  or  idea,  where- 
in this  thing  differs  from  those  other  things  that  are  most  like  it, 
and  that  is  its  essential  or  specific  difference.  So  wine  differs  from 
cider,  &c.,  and  all  other  juices,  in  that  it  is  pressed  from  the 
grape.  (3.)  Join  the  general  and  special  nature  together,  that  is, 
the  genus  and  the  difference,  and  then  make  up  the  definition, 
8o  the  juice  of  the  grape,  is  the  definition  of  wine. 

Not  all  things  can  be  defined  in  so  formal  a  manner  In  most 
cases,  a  correct  description  of  what  we  mean  is  all  that  is  re- 
quired. Thus  we  may  define  Covetousness  to  be  an  excessive 
love  of  money,  or  other  possessions.  Killing,  is  the  taking  away 
of  the  life  of  an  animal.  Murder  is  the  unlawful  killing  of  a 
man. 

3.  Divide,  In  all  divisions,  we  should  first  consider  the 
larger  and  more  immediate  parts  of  the  subject,  and  not 
divide  it  at  once  into  the  more  remote  parts.  One  part  of 
a  division  should  not  contain  another. 

Every  subject  should  he  divided  according  to  the  special  design 
in  view.  A  printer,  in  considering  the  several  parts  of  a  book, 
would  properly  divide  it  into  sheets,  the  sheets  into  pages,  the 
pa^s  into  lines,  and  the  lines  into  letters.     A  grammarian  would 

id 


338  THE    ORATION. 

divide  it  into  periods,  sentences,  words;  or  into  phHs  of  speect, 
as  noun,  &c.  A  logician  would  divide  it  into  chapters,  sections, 
paragraphs,  arguments,  propositions,  ideas.  He  would  divide 
the  propositions  into  subject,  object,  property,  cause,  effect,  &c 


LESSON    CXLVIII 

THE      OKATION      OR     DISCOURSE. 

The  rules  now  to  be  given  apply  in  general  to  a  popular 
oration  or  address,  a  discourse  at  the  bar,  or  in  the  pulpit. 
Tlie  parts  that  compose  a  regular  discourse  are  six : 

I.  The  introduction,  designed  to  prepare  the  hearers  for 
the  discourse.  2.  The  statement  of  the  subject.  3.  The 
explanation  of  the  facts  connected  with  it.  4.  The  use  oi 
arguments  to  support  our  opinions,  and  to  disprove  those 
of  an  opposite  character.  5.  Address  to  the  passions,  if  the 
subject  admit  of  it.     6.  Conclusion. 

1.  The  hitroduction  (1.)  Should  be  easy  and  natural,  and  should 
therefore  not  be  planned  until  the  substance  of  the  discourse  has 
been  studied.  (2.)  Correctness  in  expression  is  iniportant,  as  the 
hearers  are  at  first  more  disposed  to  criticise.  (3.)  The  introduc- 
tion should  be  modest,  and  not  promise  too  much ;  and  dignified, 
as  springing  from  a  conviction  of  the  importance  of  what^ after- 
wards we  have  to  say.  (4.)  Generally,  it  should  be  cdm;  but 
there  are  occasions  when  an  abrupt  and  vehement  exordium  is 
perfectly  natural  and  proper.  (5.)  It  should  not  anticipate  any 
material  part  of  the  subject.  (6.)  It  should  be  proportioned  in 
length  and  kind  to  the  body  of  the  discourse.  In  a  discourse  at 
the  bar,  care  should  be  taken  not  to  employ  an  introduction  which 
the  opposite  counsel  may  lay  hold  of  and  turn  to  his  advantage. 

II.  The  enunciation  of  the  sulked  should  be  as  clear  and 
distinct  as  possible,  and  expressed  in  few  and  plain  words. 

With  this  is  connected  the  division  of  the  subject^  or  the 
outlines  of  remark.    This  method  of  the  discourse  may  be 


THE   ORATION   OR   DISCOURSE.  339 

either  formal  and  fully  expressed,  or  when  this  is  not  ad- 
visable, it  may  be  a  concealed  method.  Order  is  essential 
to  every  good  discourse ;  every  thing  said  should  be  so  ar- 
ranged as  to  prepare  the  way  naturally  and  easily  for  what 
is  to  follow. 

Rules  for  the  Division. 

(1.)  The  several  parts  must  be  really  distinct  from  one  another; 
no  one  part  should  include  any  other  part. 

It  would  be  absurd  to  propose  to  treat  first  of  the  advantages  of  virtue, 
and  secondly  of  the  advantages  of  temperance  and  justice.  The  first  of 
these  divisions  includes  the  other. 

(2.)  Begin  with  the  simplest  points — those  which  are  necessary 
to  be  first  discussed,  and  proceed  to  those  which  are  built  upon 
the  former. 

(3.)  The  several  divisions  should  exhaust  the  subject. 

(4.)  The  terms  in  which  the  method  is  stated,  should  be  as 
clear  and  concise  as  possible. 

(5.)  Let  not  the  divisions  or  heads  be  too  numerous. 

(6.)  A  happy  division  is  of  prime  consequence^  and  should  bft 
earnestly  sought. 

III.  The  Explication  or  N^arratio7i. 

To  be  clear  and  distinct,  to  be  probable,  and  to  be  concise,  are 
essential  characteristics  in  setting  forth  the  facts  upon  which  the 
subsequent  parts  of  the  discourse  are  grounded.  Attention  must 
be  given  to  names,  dates,  places,  and  every  material  circumstance 
of  the  facts  announced.  The  characters  and  motives  of  the  per- 
sons referred  to  are  to  be  described  so  as  to  give  probability  and 
force  to  the  narrative.  All  superfluous  circumstances  must  be 
omitted. 

In  sermons,  where  there  is  seldom  occasion  for  narration,  the 
explanation  of  the  subject  to  he  discoursed  on  takes  the  place  of 
narration,  and  is  to  be  conducted  according  to  the  rules  just 
stated.  To  give  a  full  and  perspicuous  account  of  the  doctrine  or 
duty  of  the  text,  requires  profound  meditation.  Aid  will  be  de- 
rived (1),  by  considering  what  light  other  passages  of  Scripture 
throw  upon  it ;  (2),  by  referring  to  some  other  subject  nearly  re- 
lated to  it,  from  which  it  is  necessary  to  distinguish  it;  (3),  by 


340  THE   ORATION   OR  DISCOURSE. 

com  paring  it  with  or  setting  it  in  contrast  with  some  other  sub- 
ject or  thing;  (4),  by  inquiring  into  causes,  or  tracing  effects; 
(5),  by  pointing  out  examples,  or  appealing  to  the  feelings  ol 
1  .earers. 

XV.   The  Argumentative  Part. 

A^rguments  are  (l),  to  be  invented ;  (2),  to  be  properly 
arranged ;  (3),  to  be  expressed  in  such  style  and  manner  as 
to  give  them  their  full  force. 

As  to  their  arrangement  (1),  avoid  blending  arguments  con- 
fusedly together,  that  are  of  a  separate  nature ;  (2),  it  is  best,  gen- 
erally, to  arrange  the  arguments  in  the  order  of  their  strength, 
putting  the  strongest  last ;  (3),  when  the  arguments  are  satisfac- 
tory, it  is  best  to  treat  them  apart  and  distinctly,  but  when  they 
are  weak  it  is  better  to  run  them  into  one  another,  to  group  them 
together,  that  by  union  they  may  give  strength  to  the  argument ; 
(4),  arguments  should  not  be  carried  too  far  or  multiplied  too 
much,  for  a  cause  is  thus  suspected  of  weakness. 

V.  The  Pathetic, 

Arguments  or  narration  must  prepare  the  way  for  it.  "We  must 
ourselves  feel,  in  order  to  state  that  which  will  make  others  feel. 
The  objects  adapted  to  awaken  the  intended  feeling  must  be 
vividly  set  before  the  mind,  in  a  proper  array  of  circumstances 
adapted  to  arouse  feeling.  Avoid  interweaving  any  thing  of  a 
foreign  nature  with  this  part  of  the  discourse,  and  let  it  not  be 
too  much  prolonged.  Unaffected  and  simple  language  is  here  es- 
sential, for  true  feeling  uses  such. 

VI.  The  Conclusion, 

This  must  vary  with  the  strain  of  the  discourse.  Sometimes 
the  pathetic  part  should  form  the  conclusion.  If  the  discourse  has 
been  chiefly  argumentative,  a  summing  up  of  the  arguments,  and 
presenting  them  in  one  clear  view,  makes  a  good  conclusion.  In 
sermons,  inferences  or  reflections  from  what  has  been  said,  may 
form  the  close.  But  care  should  be  taken,  not  only  that  they  rise 
naturally,  but  that  they  should  so  much  agree  with  the  strain  of 
the  previous  discourse,  as  not  to  break  its  unity.  Inferences, 
however  legitimately  drawn  from  the  doctrine  of  the  text,  have  a 


INVENTION. 


841 


"bad  effect,  if  at  the  conclusion  of  the  discourse  they  introduce 
some  subject  altogether  new,  and  turn  off  our  attention  from  the 
main  object  of  the  discourse. 

A  discourse  should  not  end  abruptly,  nor  should  it  be  continued 
after  we  have  encouraged  an  expectation  of  its  coming  at  once  to 
a  close.  It  should  not  be  ended  with  a  languishing  or  drawling 
Fentence,  but  with  dignity  and  force,  so  as  to  leave  a  favorable  and 
strong  impression. 


LESSON  CXLIX. 

AIDS   IN   ARGUMENTATIVE   WRITING. 

A  large  amount  of  aid  may  be  derived  from  the  use  oi 
the  topics  presented  in  previous  lessons ;  but  still  further 
aid  is  furnished  in  this,  and  in  subsequent  lessons. 

Invention  is  the  faculty  or  the  art  oi  finding  considera- 
tions or  arguments  fitted  to  inform,  convince,  persuade,  or 
delight. 

To  succeed  in  this  pursuit,  we  must  (1.)  Consider  the  character, 
the  capacity,  the  present  knowledge,  and  the  ordinary  motives,  of 
the  person  or  persons  addressed.  (2.)  We  must  consider  from 
what  sources  these  arguments  may  be  had,  by  which  to  affect  the 
person  or  persons  in  such  manner  as  we  propose. 

From  the  considerations  first  named,  the  argument  will  assume 
one  of  the  forms  now  to  be  explained : 

1.  Argumentum  ad  judicium  (address  to  the  judgment),  is  an 
address  which  is  suited  to  operate  on  minds  not  deficient  in  under- 
standing and  common  knowledge;  not  warped  by  prejudice  or 
principle  of  some  pecuHar  kind  ;  and  not  so  far  under  the  govern- 
ment of  the  passions  as  to  be  incapable  of  being  moved  except  by 
an  appeal  to  them.  It  is  an  argument  taken  from  the  nnture  or 
existence  of  things,  and  addressed  to  the  reason  of  mankind. 

2.  Argumentum  ad  liominem  (an  address  to  the  individua 
man),  is  that  which  one  uses  to  a  person  who  is  biassed  by  some 
peculiar  principle  or  motive. 


342  FORMS   OF  ARGUMENT. 

Thus,  for  instance,  to  a  person  whose  sole  motive  is  sensual  enjoyment, 
it  would  be  impossible  immediately  to  recommend  temperance  on  ordi- 
nary grounds ;  but  an  argument  might  be  addressed  to  that  very  motive 
m  its  favor,  namely,  that  by  temperance  the  senses  are  preserved  in  a 
healthy  state,  and  consequently  in  a  better  condition  for  receiving  the 
pleasures  peculiar  to  them. 

When  an  argument  is  built  upon  the  professed  principles  or 
opinions  of  the  person  with  whom  we  argue^  whether  the  opinions 
be  true  or  false,  it  is  an  argumentum  ad  hominem^  an  address  to 
his  professed  principles.  St.  Paul  often  uses  this  argument,  when 
he  reasons  with  the  Jews,  and  when  he  says,  *'I  speak  as  a  man." 

3.  Argumentum  ad  doctrinam  (an  address  to  learning,  or  to 
people  of  learning),  is  an  address  which  presumes  the  audience  to 
be  instructed  in  some  branch  or  branches  of  learning  in  which 
mankind  at  large  do  not  participate. 

Thus,  for  instance,  a  physician,  a  lawyer,  or  a  divine,  discoursing  to  an 
audience  of  his  professional  brethren,  would  make  frequent  use  of  the 
argumentum  ad  doctrinam^  a  mode  of  address  which  he  would  not  be  justi- 
fied in  using  if  discoursing  on  the  very  same  subjects  to  an  ordinary  auai- 
ence.  He  would  then,  in  order  to  succeed,  be  compelled  to  employ  popular 
arguments,  or  such  as  are  adapted  to  ordinary  knowledge  ;  and  not  till  be 
had  instructed  his  auditors  could  he,  with  effect,  employ  any  other. 

4.  Argumentum  ad  verecundiam  (an  address  to  the  sentiment 
of  reverence  or  respect),  is  that  which  a  speaker  uses  when,  in 
support  of  his  argument,  he  relies  on  that  sentiment  in  his  au- 
dience towards  the  source  whence  it  springs — the  man  of  science, 
of  wisdom,  or  moral  worth,  who  advocated  the  truth  we  seek  to 
establish. 

The  sentiment  may  be  special  or  universal.  In  ancient  times,  a  disciple 
of  Pythagoras  was  able  to  silence  any  opposition  among  his  fellow-disci- 
ples by  averring,  in  support  of  a  proposition,  that  the  master  himself  said 
so  {.ipse  dixit).  In  modern  times,  a  speaker  may  procure  admission  for  a 
scientific  truth  which  he  is  unable  to  demonstrate,  by  affirming  it  to  be  an 
ascertained  principle  of  some  established  science,  or  the  discovery  of  some 
accredited  philosopher.  In  this  case,  instead  of  the  appropriate  physical 
proof,  he  uses  the  argumentum  ad  Derecundiam. 

5.  Argumentum  adfidem  (an  address  to  religious  faith),  is  tlia 
which  a  speaker  uses  when  he  grounds  his  argument  solely  on  the 
religious  tenets  of  his  hearers. 

With  regard  to  an  argument  thus  grounded,  it  must  be  evident, 


FORMS   OF   ARGUMENT.  343 

tenets  vary  in  different  bodies  of  individuals  as  well  as  in  individuals 
themselves,  that  though  it  may  hold  good  in  one  place,  or  on  one  occasion, 
it  will  not  hold  good  everywhere,  and  on  all  occasions. 

6.  Argumentum  ad  ignorantiam  (an  address  to  ignorance  or 
ignorant  persons),  is  an  address  w^hich  avoids  the  truth  as  it  is, 
and  advances  something  instead  of  it,  as  a  nearer  way  of  gaining 
over  the  ignorant  hearer  to  the  purpose  in  view. 

Thus,  a  nurse  deters  an  infant  child  from  something  he  is  incline  1  to 
do,  not  by  showing  the  true  ground  of  its  impropriety  or  evil,  which  the 
child  may  be  unable  to  comprehend,  but  by  the  terrors  of  a  bugbear  which 
has  existence  only  through  the  ignorance  of  the  little  hearer.  Thus,  again, 
we  deter  thieves  from  trespassing  on  our  grounds,  not  by  showing  the  un- 
lawfulness of  the  act,  which  would  be  an  argument  thrown  away  upon 
them,  but  by  stating  that  a  police  force  is  ever  ready  near  the  premises, 
which  statement,  if  not  a  fact,  is  an  argument  to  their  ignorance  and  their 
fears ;  and  if  a  fact,  and  known  to  be  so,  is  still  an  argument  to  their  fears. 

7.  Argumentum  ad  passiones  (an  address  to  the  passions),  is 
such  an  address  as  at  once  rouses  passions  ready  to  be  inflamed, 
when  the  speaker  chooses  this  means  to  gain  his  end,  instead  of 
an  appeal  to  judgment,  or  the  argumentum  ad  judicium. 

Thus,  if  a  public  magistrate  stands  in  the  way  of  a  speaker's  private 
interest,  and  the  latter  is  a  person  of  no  principle,  but  of  great  popularity, 
he  may  at  once  gain  his  own  ends  by  exciting  auditors  ready  to  go  along 
with  him  against  one  whom  they  already  hate,  because  he  restrains  them 
from  illegal  acts  into  which  they  are  eager  to  plunge.  The  topics  of  the 
speaker  may  be,  that  the  man  is  corrupt  in  his  magisterial  duties,  an  op- 
pressor of  the  poor,  an  instrument  of  tyranny  in  the  hands  of  the  rich, 
without  one  proof  of  such  allegations,  which  cool,  instructed  judgment 
would  admit. 

An  address  to  the  passions  is  not  in  itself  morally  wrong,  when 
the  motives  of  the  speaker  are  disinterested,  and  he  has  recourse 
to  it  only  when,  to  the  best  of  his  judgment,  he  has  won  his  an-* 
dience  to  the  side  of  truth  by  proofs  offered  to  their  cool,  instructed 
understanding. 

In  this  case,  however,  it  is  more  than  probable  that  he  will  have  tc 
excite,  not  their  most  inflammable  passions,  but  the  passions  of  their  bett<* 
nature,  dormant  and  inactive  while  the  former  are  raging,  or  are  ready  . 
rage.  Moreover,  if  under  the  word  passions  we  include,  as  we  are  entitled 
to  do,  our  imaginative  sensibility,  from  which  spring  all  those  emotions 
that  so  often  delight  us,  without  urging  us  on  to  any  particular  course  of 
action,  then  every  address  intended  to  awaken  such  emotions,  including 
all  th  ''ctions  of  poetry,  will  be  an  address  to  the  passions. 


»^44  SOURCES   OF   ARGUMENT. 


LESSON    CI. 

AIDS   IN   ARGUMENTATIVE   WRITINGi 

The  Topics  of  our  Arguments,  that  is,  the  places  or 
sources  whence  they  may  be  taken,  are  either  eiiternal  to 
the  subject  treated  of,  or  inchided  in  it.     Of  the  former  are  : 

I.  Experiment  and  Testimony  are  tlie  sources  of  proof  when- 
ever an  audience  cannot  be  convinced  by  directing  their  attention 
to  the  subject  as  it  exists  in  their  own  minds. 

Thus  if  we  have  to  prove  the  proposition  that  the  air  we  breathe  is  a 
combination  of  two  fluids,  oxygen  and  nitrogen,  our  proof  must  either  be 
experiment  addressed  to  the  senses,  or  the  argumenium  ad  vereeundiam 
derived  from  the  testimony  of  scientific  men. 

Thus,  again,  if  we  desire  to  make  out  against  a  man  the  charge  of  theft, 
we  must  either  detect  him  in  the  act  before  the  eyes  of  those  who  are  to 
judge  of  it,  or  we  must  bring  credible  witnesses  of  his  guilt,  to  support 
our  charge. 

II.  Of  the  internal  sources  of  argument — those  which  the  sub- 
ject itself  supplies,  when  attentively,  considered,  are  (1)  Defini- 
tion;  (2),  Etymology ;  (3),  Enumeration;  (4),  Genus;  (5),  Spe- 
cies. 

Thus,  for  instance,  if  a  writer,  for  some  reserved  end,  should 
think  lit  to  enlarge  on  the  subject  of  Generosity^  he  might,  in  the 
first  place,  urge  the  nobleness  of  this  sentiment,  by  an  argument 
derived  from  the  nature  or  definition  of  generosity ;  which  argu- 
ment would  likewise  be  an  argument  from  Enumeration^  if  it  con- 
tained a  detail  of  particulars  constituting  the  thing. 

He  might  say,  for  instance,  that  generosity  is  a  readiness  to  share  with 
others  advantages  which  the  possessor  has  the  power  to  keep  to  himself; 
a  disposition  to  give  and  to  forgive ;  candor,  forbearance,  and  the  absence 
of  all  envy ;  that  these  are  the  characteristics  of  a  noble  nature,  and  prove 
the  nobleness  of  the  virtue  which  includes  them. 

From  this  argument  from  Definition  and  Enumeration,  another 
might  be  added  from  Etymology, 

It  might  be  said,  generous  originally  meant  well-horn^  and  the  transfer  of 
the  word  from  its  first  to  its  present  meaning,  is  an  evidence  that  as  it 
formerly  meant  nobility  of  blood,  it  must  now  mean  nobility  of  soul. 


ARGUMENTATIVE   WRITING.  345 

It  is  a  rule  that  the  Genus  can  always  he  asserted  of  each  specien. 

Thus  we  can  say,  an  oak  is  a  tree,  and  an  elm  is  a  tree,  and  a  vine  is  a 
tree.  This  shows  that  tree  is  a  genus,  and  that  oak,  elm,  and  vine  are 
species  under  that  particular  genus. 

Genus  and  species  have  reference  to  moral  ideas  as  well  as 
physical. 

Thus  vi^e  may  say,  industry  is  a  virtue,  frugality  is  a  virtue,  temperance 
is  a  virtue.  This  shows  that  virtue  is  a  genus,  and  that  industry,  frugality, 
and  temperance  are  its  species.  While  a  genus  may  be  divided  into  spe- 
cies, each  species  may  be  subdivided  into  individuals. 

The  mode  of  reasoning  from  genus  and  species  is  merely  to  show 
that  a  certain  species  is  properly  classed  under  a  certain  genus, 
and  then  to  affirm  or  deny  of  the  species  what  you  may  affirm  or 
deny  of  the  genus. 

Thus  you  may  say :  All  fruit  is  useful  to  health  ;  the  apple  is  a  kind  of 
fruit;  therefore  the  apple  is  useful  to  health.  This  principle  of  reasoning, 
from  genus  to  species,  is  the  only  kind  of  reasoning  in  which  you  gain  any 
thing  by  placing  it  (as  above)  in  the  form  of  what  is  called  a  Syllogism. 
And  even  here  the  argument  gains  nothing  in  point  of  strength,  but  some- 
times it  gains  a  little  in  point  of  clearness,  or  at  least  it  gives  a  clearei 
Rtatement  of  the  meaning  of  the  reasoner. 

The  following  are   the  examples  given  in  the  Logic  of  Dr. 

Watts : 

*'  Every  wicked  man  is  truly  miserable ; 
All  tyrants  are  wicked  men  ; 
Therefore  all  tyrants  are  truly  miserable. 

He  that's  always  in  fear  is  not  happy ; 
Covetous  men  are  always  in  fear ; 
Therefore  covetous  men  are  not  happy. 

Whatsoever  furthers  our  salvation  is  good  for  u»  ; 
Some  afflictions  further  our  salvation  ; 
Therefore  some  afflictions  are  good  for  us. 

Nothing  that  must  be  repented  of  is  truly  desirable ; 

Some  pleasures  must  be  repented  of; 

Therefore  there  are  some  pleasures  which  are  not  truly  desirable.'* 

In  the  first  syllogism,  the  genus  is,  '-'•  Every  wicked  man,"  and 
the  species,  "all  tyrants." 

In  the  second  syllogism,  "He  that's  always  in  fear,"  is  the 
genns,  "  and  covetous  man"  is  the  species  under  that  genus. 

15* 


346  ARGUMENTATIVE  WRITING. 

In  the  third  syllogism,  "  Whatever  furthers  our  salvation,"  is  the 
genus,  and  *'  some  afflictions"  is  the  species. 

In  the  fourth  syllogism,  ^'  Nothing  that  must  be  repented  of,"  is 
the  genus,  and  "  some  pleasures"  is  the  species. 

In  natural  logic,  we  do  not  use  these  syllogisms.  We  should,  in 
the  above  cases,  express  our  reasons  in  the  following  manner : 

-All  tyrants,  are  truly  miserable,  because  they  are  wicked  men. 
Covetous  men  are  not  happy,  because  they  are  always  in  fear. 
Some  afflictions  are  good  for  us,  because  they  further  our  salvation. 
Some  pleasures  are  not  desirable,  because  they  must  be  repented  of. 


LESSON    CLI. 

AIDS    IN    ARGUMENTATIVE   WRITING. 

Cause^  Effect^  Antecedents^  Consequents^  Adjuncts^  are 
other  topics  whence  internal  arguments  are  derived. 

Let  it  be  imagined  that  a  speaker  has  to  recommend  to  his  audi- 
tors the  particular  act  of  generosity  already  supposed,  namely, 
a  grant  of  relief  to  one  who  has  been  unfriendly  to  them  and 
their  interests, — he  might  reason  from  the  act  itself  as  a  cause  of 
certain  effects  that  must  follow:  we  may  expect  a  'priori^  or  inde- 
pendently of  experience,  he  would  say,  that  we  shall  be  rewarded 
by  the  respect  and  esteem  of  men,  and  the  favor  of  heaven.  The 
opportunity  of  yielding  relief  under  such  circumstances,  he  might 
afflrm  to  be  the  work  of  heaven  in  order  to  try  their  generosity ; 
an  argument  which  is  taken  from  the  final  cause,  or  that  which 
affirms  o.  purpose  as  the  cause  of  what  is  stated  to  exist.  This  also 
is  an  a  priori  argument. 

The  orator  then  calling  the  attention  of  his  auditors  to  the 
man's  distressful  state,  might  argue  from  that  as  an  effect  for  which 
a  cause  was  to  be  found ;  which  cause  he  might  say,  is  not  merely 
to  try  their  generosity,  but  to  punish  the  man  for  his  former  un- 
friendly conduct  to  them. 

But  this  a  posteriori  conclusion  becomes,  when  stated,  an  ante- 
cedent^ that  is  to  say,  a  statement  connected  with  probable  conse- 
quents.    Among  these  consequents,  the  orator  might  assume  this 


AliatTMENTATlVE  WttmNO*  347 

to  be  included ;  that  if  Providence  punishes,  he  does  not  call  on 
man  to  punish  also.  But  sliall  we  not  interfere  with  the  punish* 
ment  of  heaven  if  we  relieve  this  man  ?  No :  there  is  the  clear 
command,  *'  Do  good  to  them  that  hate  you,"  which  forbids  such  a 
consequent  to  be  derived  from  the  antecedent. 

Further,  in  order  to  combat  an  inclination  not  to  relieve  the 
man,  the  orator  might  argue  from  the  topic  consequents^  thus: 
this  man^s  prosperity  may  revive  without  your  help,  and  he  may 
be  again  a  powerful  enemy;  heaven  may  punish  the  neglect  of 
your  present  opportunity,  by  visiting  you  in  your  turn  with  dia 
tress. 

And  these  arguments  from  consequents  might  be  enforced  by  some 
from  the  topic  adjuncts :  from  the  adjuncts  of  the  man, — namely, 
his  talents,  his  power  to  conciliate  friends,  to  injure  enemies; 
from  the  adjuncts  of  the  auditors, — namely,  the  dangers  that  in 
some  quarters  threaten  their  interests;  the  persons  opposed  to 
those  interests,  who  already  abound. 

In  regard  to  physical  and  moral  causes^  there  are  four 
methods  of  reasoning  : 

Firsts  from  the  existence  of  the  cause,  we  may  infer  the  exist* 
ence  of  the  effect. 

The  Second  mode  of  reasoning,  is  from  the  existence  of  the  effect 
to  infer  the  existence  of  the  cause.  All  theories  or  systems  are 
founded  on  this  mode  of  reasoning. 

The  Third  mode  of  reasoning,  is  from  the  non-existence  of  the 
cause  to  infer  the  non-existence  of  the  effect. 

The  Fourth  mode  of  reasoning,  is  from  the  non-existence  of  the 
effect  to  infer  the  non-existence  of  the  cause. 

In  reasoning  upon  moral  causes^  we  are  exposed  to  much  diffi^ 
culty^from  the  circumstance  that  one  effect  is  of  ten  produced  ly  a 
variety  of  causes^  and  the  greatest  sophistry  arises  from  imputing 
to  one  particular  cause  an  effect  which  results  fj^om  the  joint  opera" 
tion  of  many  causes. 

We  shall  also  fall  into  error^  if  we  deny  the  existence  of  any  one 
cause^  hecause  other  causes  contributed  to  produce  the  effect. 

We  should  also  fall  into  error .^  were  we  to  infer  that  of  two 
events  one  is  the  cause  of  the  other ^  merely  because  it  occurred  jtrni 
in  the  order  of  time. 


348  ARGUMENTATIVE   WRITING. 

This  fallacy  is  often  ridiculed  by  a  reference  to  the  building  of  Tenter- 
den  steeple  being  the  cause  of  the  Goodwin  Sands.  The  story  is  told  by 
old  Bishop  Latimer.  There  was  a  time  when  the  Goodwin  Sands,  which 
lie  in  the  neighborhood  of  Dover,  were  not  there.  Some  time  after  they 
had  collected,  commissioners  were  appointed  to  ascertain  the  cause.  They 
proceeded  to  the  spot  and  examined  witnesses.  Among  others,  an  old  man 
assured  them  that  the  cause  of  the  Goodwin  Sands  being  there,  was  the 
Tenterden  steeple.  They  asked  him  ''  how  this  could  be?"  He  stated  that, 
he  '*  could  not  tell  how,  but  he  knew  it  was  so  ;  for  he  recollected  that 
when  there  was  no  steeple,  there  wore  no  sands,  but  soon  after  the  building 
of  the  steeple,  in  came  the  sands.  He  therefore  inferred  that  the  building 
of  the  steeple  was  the  cause  of  the  sands." 

In  order  to  prove  that  two  events  sustain  the  relation  to  each 
other  of  cause  anct  effect^  it  is  necessary  to  show^Jirst^  that  the  two 
events  did  actually  occur ;  secondly^  that  the  event  which  we  call 
the  cause,  occurred  in  the  order  of  time  before  the  effect;  and 
thirdly^  that  there  was  an  adaptation  in  the  cause  to  produce  the 
effect. 

We  sometimes  attempt  to  refute  a  doctrine  by  tracing  the  a5- 
8urd  or  injurious  consequences  that  must  result  from  it.  This 
mode  of  argument  is  called  reductio  ad  absurdum. 

Akin  to  this  is  an  exposure  of  the  fallacy  oi  proving  too  much. 
This  fallacy  in  an  argument,  which,  if  admitted  to  prove  the  point 
in  dispute,  would,  if  carried  out  to  all  its  legitimate  consequences, 
also  prove  other  points  which  neither  of  the  disputants  admits  to 
be  true. 

Arguments  founded  on  the  advantages  or  disadvantages  that 
may  result  from  any  measure  under  consideration,  come  under  the 
bead  of  reasonings  from  the  relation  of  cause. and  effect. 

Final  Causes. 

The  actions  of  intelligent  beings  are  the  effects  of  motives  oi 
feelings.  Hence,  the  motive  or  design  of  an  action  is  called  its 
final  cause.  Moral  causes  refer  to  habits,  events,  and  institutions. 
Final  causes  refer  generally  to  individual  acts. 

Examples. — *'  The  gentleman  travels  for  pleasure.''^  *'  The  lady  rides 
for  exercise.''^     "The  soldier  fights /or  glory  y 

The  doctrine  of  Final  Causes  enters  largely  into  the  scieiice  of 
Natural  Theology. 


ARGUMENTATIVE   WRITING.  349 

From  the  adaptation  of  certain  arrangements  to  answer  certain  purposes, 
v/e  infer  that  these  arrangements  were  designed  to  answer  these  purposes. 
Thus,  the  eye  is  adapted  for  seeing ;  we  infer  that  it  was  made  for  that 
purpose.     See  Paley's  "  Natural  Theology." 

From  the  manifold  proofs  of  design  in  the  world,  we  infer  the  existence 
of  a  Designer.  These  effects  denote  intelligence,  and  hence  we  infer  the 
existence  of  an  Intelligent  Cause. 

Again,  from  the  manifestation  of  certain  attributes  or  qualities  in  the 
works  of  creation  and  providence,  we  infer  the  existence  of  these  attributes 
and  qualities  in  the  Intelligent  Cause.  Hence,  we  demonstrate  the  power, 
wisdom,  goodness,  and  other  attributes  of  God.  We  prove  the  goodness 
of  God  by  facts,  showing  that  the  works  of  nature  are  so  constructed  as  to 
produce  pleasure  as  well  as  utility  to  his  intelligent  creatures.  See  Acts 
xiv.  17. 

In  the  same  way  we  reason  on  the  nature  and  character  of  the 
human  mind.,  and  on  the  circumstances  by  which  we  are  sur- 
rounded. 

Man  has  a  capacity  for  being  happy ;  we  infer  that  he  was  designed  to  bo 
happy.  Man  has  a  capacity  for  acquiring  knowledge  ;  we  infer  that  he  was 
designed  to  acquire  knowledge.  Man  has  faculties  adapted  to  an  immortal 
state  of  existence  ;  we  infer  that  he  is  destined  to  immortality. 

In  the  same  way,  from  the  attributes,  qualities,  and  capacities 
of  the  animal  creation.,  we  infer  the  design  or  final  cause  of  their 
creation. 

Final  causes  form  an  important  part  of  the  investigation  in 
cases  of  circumstantial  evidence. 

If  we  dhow  that  the  prisoner  had  a  strong  motive  for  committing  the  of- 
fence, such  as  avarice,  revenge,  &c.,  or  had  stated  beforehand  a  determin- 
ation to  commit  it,  this,  with  other  circumstances,  will  be  considered  as 
tending  to  prove  that  he  did  commit  it. 


LESSON  cm. 

AIDS   IN   ARGUMENTATIVE   WRITING. 

Similitude^  Parity  of  case,  Co7itraries,  Proportion,  A 
fortiori,  are  names  of  other  topics  whence  internal  argu- 
ments are  derived. 

Suppose,  for  instance,  that  the  wi-iter  were  desirous  to  enforce 


350  EEASONING   FROM   COMPARISON,   ETC. 

his  former  arguments  on  generosity,  and,  by  enforcing  tliem  to 
move  the  passions,  he  might  compare  generosity  to  the  sun,  which 
shines  alike  on  fruitful  and  unfruitful  soils. 

Again,  in  order  to  enforce  his  former  argument,  that  the  case  of 
the  man  needing  relief  was  designed  in  Providence  to  try  their 
generosity  or  their  faith,  he  might  insist  that  their  own  case  with 
respect  to  God  is  a  parallel  or  analogous  case  to  that  which  is 
brought  before  themselves ;  deal  with  this  man,  the  writer  might 
say,  as  God  deals  with  you : 

"  We  do  pray  for  mercy, 
And  that  same  prayer  doth  teach  us  all,  to  render 
The  deeds  of  mercy." — Shahspeare, 

From  Contraries  the  writer  might  argue  that  the  proposed  act 
of  generosity  will  bring  the  esteem  of  men  as  a  reward. 

He  might  say :  "  As  selfishness  brings  contempt  and  execration,  generos 
ity  brings  honor  and  applause  ;  as  selfishness  shuts  out  the  sympathies  of 
mankind,  generosity  opens  those  sympathies,  and  directs  them  all  to  the 
generous  man." 

From  Proportion  he  may  argue  thus : 

It  is  impossible  for  man  to  equal  the  bounty  of  his  heavenly  Creator,  but 
he  may  approach  it  in  a  certain  humble  degree,  and  the  greater  the  degree, 
the  more  nearly  will  he  resemble  the  Creator  who  formed  him. 

Lastly,  in  order  to  enforce  the  argument  drawn  from  a  pruden- 
tial regard  to  consequences^  the  writer  might  say,  that  if,  without 
regard  to  such  consequences,  it  behooves  his  readers  to  yield  the 
relief  desired,  then  a  fortiori^  with  those  impending  consequences 
ia  view,  they  cannot  but  resolve  to  yield  it. 


LESSON  CLIII. 

REASOmNG    FROM   EXAMPLBa. 

In  reasoning  from  examples,  we  adduce  examples  in  proof 
of  the  propositions  we  seek  to  establish.  Thus  our  Saviour 
spoke,  Mark^  ii.  23-28.  Another  instance  is  the  following 
from  Rev.  Sidney  Smith : 


RKASONING   FROM   EXAMPLES.  351 

"  It  would  go  very  far  to  destroy  the  absurd  and  pernicious  association 
of  genius  and  idleness,  by  showing  them  that  the  greatest  poets,  orators, 
statesmen,  and  historians, — men  of  the  most  brilliant  and  imposing  talents, 
have  actually  labored  as  hard  as  the  makers  of  dictionaries  and  the  ar- 
rangers of  indexes  ;  and  that  the  most  obvious  reason  why  they  have  been 
superior  to  other  men  is,  that  they  have  taken  more  pains  than  other  men. 
Gibbon  was  in  his  study  every  morning,  winter  and  summer,  at  six 
o'clock ;  Mr.  Burke  was  the  most  laborious  and  indefatigable  of  human 
beings  ;  Leibnitz  was  never  out  of  his  library ;  Peel  killed  himself  by 
study ;'  Cicero  narrowly  escaped  death  by  the  same  cause ;  Milton  was  at 
his  books  with  as  much  regularity  as  a  merchant  or  an  attorney ,-^he  had 
mastered  all  the  knowledge  of  his  time ;  so  had  Homer.  There  are  in- 
stances to  the  contrary ;  but,  generally  speaking,  the  life  of  all  truly  great 
men  has  been  a  life  of  intense  and  incessant  labor. ''^ 

When  from  one  or  more  examples  you  infer  a  general  principle, 
that  is  called  Induction,  or  Reasoning  from  Examples ;  when  from 
the  general  principle  you  infer  an  individual  case,  that  is  called 
Deduction,  or  reasoning  from  genus  to  species.  Induction  is  r ea- 
rning from  particulars  to  generals;  Deduction  is  reasoning  from 
generals  to  particulars. 

Be  it  observed,  however,  that  generals  cannot  be  inferred  frem 
particulars,  unless  you  have  reason  to  believe  that  all  the  partic- 
ulars are  alike.  Our  reasoning  here  must  depend  on  the  uniform- 
ity of  nature.  When  a  constant  uniformity  does  not  exist,  I  can- 
not reason  so  conclusively,  and  my  reasonings  will  be  weaker  in 
proportion  to  this  want  of  uniformity,  and  hence  we  shall  have 
to  descend  from  certain  reasonings  to  probable  or  doubtful. 

We  use  the  inductive  method  in  the  physical  sciences. 

We  see  several  instances  in  which  fire  melts  lead ;  we  infer  it  will 
always  do  so,  and  when  we  are  satisfied  that  this  is  the  case,  we  call  it  a 
law  of  nature.  Thus  also  are  the  laws  of  Astronomy  and  other  natural 
sciences  discovered. 

This  kind  of  reasoning  abounds  in  the  sacred  writings. 

See  Neh.  xiii.  15-18,  the  Book  of  Psalms,  the  Prophets ;  and  in  the  New 
Testament  consult  the  eleventh  chapter  of  Hebrews  and  first  verse  of 
chapter  twelfth,  which  contains  the  inference ;  also  James  v.  10,  11, 16- 
18 ;  2  Tim.  iii.  8,  9  ;  1  John  iii.  11,  12 ;  1  Cor.  x.  6-11. 

Principles  are  often  confirmed  or  illustrated  hy  Examples  ;  as, 
in  Luke  iv.  24-27,  where  they  are  adduced  to  show  that  a  prophet 
has  no  honor  in  his  own  country. 


J352  REASONING   FROM   EXAMPLES. 

The  example  of  David,  a  man  of  decided  piety,  is  adduced  to  shew 
that  in  a  case  of  necessity  a  positive  law  might  be  violated  to  satisfy  hun- 
ger.    Mat.  xii.  1-4;  Mat.  xii.  39,  40;  John  iii.  14. 

Moral  injunctions  are  often  enforced  ly  Scriptural  examples. 
Reasoning  hy  example  is  in  great  use  among  lawyers^  by  what 
is  called  a  case  in  pointy  that  is,  an  example  in  point. 

When  a  case  is  in  dispute,  the  plan  is  to  show  that  a  case  similar  to  the 
present  has  already  been  decided.  Rut  the  example  or  case  adduced  will 
not,  of  course,  be  the  same  in  all  its  circumstances  as  the  case  under  trial. 
K  so,  there  would  have  been  no  ground  for  the  lawsuit,  as  the  point 
would  then  have  been  already  decided.  But  it  is  the  object  of  the  advo- 
cate to  show  that  the  case  adduced  establishes  a  principle,  and  that  this 
principle  thus  established  will  apply  to  the  case  under  consideration. 

Sometimes  an  individual  case  is  adduced  for  the  purpose  not  of 
establishing  but  of  overthrowing  a  general  principle;  as  in  Mat. 
XV.  1-6. 

As  examples  can  often  be  adduced  on  both  sides  of  a  qaestion, 
we  shall  have  to  balance  one  set  of  examples  against  anoth^.,  in 
order  to  judge  of  the  probability  of  the  case  under  consideration. 

All  anecdotes  are  arguments.  They  all  prove  something,  or  may 
be  so  applied  as  to  prove  something,  and  they  should,  when  re- 
lated, be  associated  with  the  principle  which  they  are  adapted  to 
prove. 

The  rule  that  when  you  have  advanced  arguments  enough  to 
prove  your  point  you  should  advance  no  more,  may  be  enforced 
by  the  following  '-''Eighteen  Reasons  for  Absence:'''' 

The  Prince  of  Conde  passing  through  Beune,  the  public  authorit'es 
went  to  meet  him  at  the  gates  of  the  town.  After  many  high-Hown  com- 
pliments the  mayor  added :  *'  To  display  our  joy,  we  wished  to  receive 
you  with  the  reports  of  a  numerous  artillery,  but  we  have  not  been  able  to 
fire  the  cannons  for  eighteen  reasons.  In  the  first  place,  we  have  none ; 
secondly — "  "  My  good  friend,"  said  the  prince,  "the  first  reason  is  sn 
good  I  will  excuse  the  other  seventeen." 


LESSON  CLIV. 

REASONING  FROM  ANALOGY,  COMPARISON,  AND  CONTRAST. 

By  reasoning  from  Analogy^  we  mean,  reasoning  about 
one  thing  from  its  resemblance  to  another  thing. 


ANALOGICAL   REASONING.  353 

For  an  instance,  see  Mat.  xii.  11,  12.  Another  we  adduce  from  Palcy  : 
"  The  practice  of  passing  bad  money  is  sometimes  defended  by  the  vulgar 
excuse,  tliat  we  have  taken  the  money  for  good,  and  must  therefore  get 
rid  of  it ;  which  excuse  is  much  the  same  as  if  one  who  had  been  robbed 
on  the  highway  should  imagine  he  had  a  right  to  reimburse  himself  out  of 
the  pocket  of  the  first  traveller  he  met." 

Analogical  reasoning  is  employed  in  several  of  the  sciences^  in 
moral  reasonings^  in  legal  arguments,  in  political  economy,  and 
theology.  It  is  often  used  with  great  effect  in  refuting  objections 
that  have  been  advanced  against  Divine  revelation.  Read  But- 
ler's Analogy;  also,  Malachi  1.  6;  Luke  xiii.  14-16. 

Analogy  is  the  foundation  of  nearly  all  our  figurative  lan- 
guage. We  must  be  cautious,  however,  in  adopting  Metaphors  as 
arguments. 

We  make  comparisons  between  different  persons,  quali- 
ties,  and  actions ;  as,  "  Knowledge  is  better  than  riches ; 
virtue  is  better  than  knowledge ;  therefore  virtue  is  better 
than  riches."     This  is  an  argument  founded  on  comparison. 

Our  descriptions  of  persons,  places,  and  things,  consist  chiefly 
of  points  of  comparison  with  other  persons,  places,  and  things. 

Thus,  speaking  of  Holt,  it  is  said,  "  He  was  not  a  statesman  like  Claren- 
don ;  he  was  not  a  philosopher  like  Bacon ;  he  was  not  an  orator  like 
Mansfield,  yet,  &C," 


LESSON    CLV. 

REASONING    BY   FABLES   AND    PROVERBS. 

The  fable  is  a  fictitious  composition,  designed  to  illustrate 
a  proposition^  which  is  called  the  moral  of  the  fable  (so 
called  because  the  fable  is  commonly  employed  to  illustrate 
moral  truths). 

It  is  not  necessary  that  the  machinery  of  the  fable  should  bear 
any  resemblance  to  any  moral  process  to  which  the  proposition 
may  be  applied  (herein  it  differs  from  the  parable) ;  it  is  required 
only  that  the  result  shall  illustrate  a  proposition. 


354  REASONING    BY   FABLES   AND   PROVERBS. 

In  the  fable  found  in  Luke  xviii.  1-5,  the  proposition  to  be  illustrated  ib 
the  advantage  of  perseverance  in  prayer.  But  there  is  no  correspondence 
between  the  machinery  of  the  fable  and  the  parties  to  whom  reference  is 
made.  In  fact,  the  fable  derives  no  small  portion  of  its  force  from  this 
want  of  resemblance.     It  amounts  to  an  a  fortiori  argument. 

The  following  is  an  example  of  the  use  of  Fables : 

That  eminence  in  one  kind  of  merit  is  often  associated  with  deficiency 
m  another,  is  thus  illustrated : 

"  The  Nightingale  and  the  Haiohy — A  mellifluous  nightingale  was  one 
day  pounced  upon  by  a  hawk.  "As  you  sing  so  charmingly,"  he  ex- 
claimed, "  how  deliciously  must  you  taste  !" 

The  design  of  fables  is  to  teach  us  general  maxims  and  propo- 
sitions, which  we  are  to  apply,  as  we  may  have  occasion,  to  prac- 
tical purpose,  in  our  progress  through  life. 

In  most  of  the  "  Fables  of  ^sop,"  actions  are  attributed  to  animals,  be- 
cause certain  animals  are  supposed  to  represent  certain  characters  or  dis- 
positions. Thus  the  lion  is  the  representative  of  courage  and  magna- 
nimity ;  the  fox,  of  cunning ;  the  peacock,  of  beauty ;  but  there  are  fables 
in  which  no  animals  are  introduced. 

Proverbs  are  often  the  morals  of  fables.  They  are  not 
usually  capable  of  being  proved  by  reasoning.  They  are 
proved  by  observation  and  experience;  but  referring 
chiefly  to  morals  and  manners,  they  possess  only  a  moral 
universality,  and  hence  it  is  often  easy  to  point  out  cases 
in  which  they  are  not  realized. 

Thus,  "  The  diligent  hand  maketh  rich,"  "  Train  up  a  child  in  the  way 
he  should  go,  and  when  he  is  old  he  will  not  depart  from  it,"  are  sound 
maxims,  but  cases  occur  in  which  they  do  not  apply.  This  is  no  valid  ob- 
jection to  them  as  rules  for  our  guidance.  In  human  affairs  we  must  be 
contented  with  a  high  degree  of  probability.  It  is  the  part  of  true  wisdom 
to  submit  our  conduct  to  the  guidance  of  this  high  degree  of  probability. 

The  mode  of  reasoning  from  proverbs  is  by  the  application  of  a 
general  principle  to  an  individual  case,  and  falls  under  the  class 
of  genus  and  species.  A  fine  illustration  may  be  seen  in  Dr. 
Franklin's  "  Poor  Richard's  Almanac." 


DESCRIPTIVE   REASONING.  355 


LESSON    CLVI. 

DESCRIPTIVE   AND   INTERROGATIVE    REASONING. 

1.  Descriptive  Reasoning  is  used  when  we  describe  ai] 
object  with  a  view  to  reason  about  it. 

For  example :  Were  a  lecturer  on  anatomy  to  describe  the  eye,  with  the 
view  of  showing  its  construction  to  his  pupils,  that  would  be  a  description, 
and  nothing  more.  Were  a  theologian  to  describe  the  eye,  in  order  to 
show  that  it  must  have  had  an  intelligent  author,  then  the  description 
would  become  a  specimen  of  descriptive  reasoning.  See  Paley's  "  Natural 
Theology." 

In  all  our  reasonings  great  use  is  made  of  description.  When 
a  legislator  proposes  a  new  law,  he  begins  with  describing  the 
present  state  of  the  law,  shows  what  improvement  is  necessary, 
and  then  proposes  his  remedy.  A  lawyer  opens  his  address  to  the 
jury,  by  a  statement  of  the  case ;  this  statement  is  descriptive. 
Descriptions  of  past  events,  and  of  good  and  bad  characters,  form 
a  large  portion  of  the  addresses  from  the  pulpit. 

Practical  applications  of  Descriptive  Reasoning  : 
In  tracing  the  effects  of  any  measure  that  we  desire  to  have  al- 
tered or  abandoned,  the  effects  are  sometimes  advantageously 
described  with  great  minuteness. 

In  describing  acts  of  injustice  or  oppression,  it  is  seldom  necessary  to 
nave  recourse  to  any  forms  of  reasoning.  The  description  itself  will 
usually  produce  all  the  impression  that  could  be  obtained  by  the  most 
profound  argumentation.  So,  also,  in  regard  to  abuses,  to  show  that  they 
ought  to  be  corrected,  it  is  enough  to  describe  them. 

2.  Interrogative  Reasoniiig. — This  is  a  form  of  reason- 
ing by  asking  questions.     Of  this,  there  are  several  kinds. 

(1.)  The  8ocratiea\  which  is  managed  by  questions  and  answers, 
in  the  form  of  a  common  conversation.  It  is  a  pleasing  method, 
because  the  teacher  takes  the  attitude  of  an  inquirer,  and  the 
learner  seems  to  convey  the  information  sought. 

The  reasoning  always  arises  out  of  something  asserted  or  known  in  the 


356  INTERROGATITE   R^ASOITING. 

previous  answer,  and  so  proceeding  to  inquire  after  something  unknown 
in  the  following  question,  which  again  makes  way  for  the  next  answer. 
For  an  illustration,  see  "  Watts  on  the  Improvement  of  the  Mind." 

(2.)  The  conversational  form.  See  Mrs.  Marcet's  "  Conversa- 
tions." It  is  such  a  form  of  reasoning  as  prevails  in  common  Hfe, 
and  occurs  in  conversation.  It  is  not  by  a  full  syllogism,  but  by  a 
defective  one,  called  Enthymeme  ;  as,  ^'  Diamonds  are  jewels ;  there* 
fore  they  are  valuable :"  "  The  human  soul  is  immaterial ;  conse* 
quently  it  is  immortal." . 

The  occurrence  of  for  ^  because^  therefore^  or  any  similar  word,  either  in 
conversation  or  in  reading,  usually  denotes  an  enthymeme ;  in  other  words, 
denotes  a  reason  or  argument  expressed  naturally,  without  the  formality  of 
scholastic  logic. 

(3.)  Sometimes  we  aslc  questions  in  order  to  answer  them^  with 
the  mew  of  removing  from  the  discussion  the  topics  to  which  they 
refer.  Thus,  a  writer  on  agricultural  distress  commences  with 
questions  in  the  form  of  inquiries,  to  which  he  replies : 

"  There  is  no  denial,  and  there  can  be  no  doubt,  that  the  whole  agricul- 
ture of  England  is  menaced  with  ruin.  But  what  is  the  cause?  Has 
Heaven  stricken  the  land  with  barrenness? — the  late  harvest  has  been 
remarkably  productive.  Has  the  land  been  trampled  by  insurrection  ? — it 
has  exhibited  a  contrast  to  all  Europe  in  its  tranquillity.  Has  commercial 
failure  driven  away  its  credit? — the  panic  of  1847  has  virtually  invigorated, 
by  purifying,  speculation.  Again  we  ask,  what  is  the  cause  ?  The  cause 
is  simply  this,"  &c. 

(4).  Sometimes  we  place  in  the  form  of  questions  those  objections 
which  our  opponents  might  advance  against  us,  St.  Paul  often 
reasons  in  this  way.  See  the  third,  fourth,  sixth,  seventh,  eighth, 
ninth,  and  eleventh  chapters  of  the  Romans. 

(5.)  The  relation  of  cause  and  effect  is  often  intimated  hy  inter- 
rogations. When  a  wrong  cause,  as  we  think,  has  been  assigned 
fur  an  effect,  and  we  desire  to  intimate  the  true  cause,  we  can  do 
this  by  asking  questions. 

''  One  man  pines  under  a  broken  constitution.  But  let  us  ask  him 
whether  he  can,  fairly  and  honestly,  assign  no  cause  for  this,  but  the  un- 
known decree  of  Heaven  ?  Has  he  duly  valued  the  blessing  of  health,  and 
always  observed  the  rules  of  virtue  and  sobriety?  Has  he  been  moderate 
in  his  life,  and  temperate  ?" 


LAWS   OF   ARGUMENTATIVE   WRITING.  357 


LESSON   CLVII. 

LAWS    OF   ARGUMENTATIVE   WRITING. 

Some  of  the  laws  which  ought  in  general  to  be  observed 
in  the  presentation  of  truths  to  the  mind  in  argumentative 
discourses,  are  thus  stated  by  Mr.  Neil : 

1.  Never  propose  to  prove  a  self-evident  proposition. 

Proof  is  impossible.  The  attempt  is  irksome,  as  well  as  displeasing  to 
the  parties  addressed:  irksome,  because  they  already  acknowledge  the 
proposition ;  and  displeasing,  because  it  insinuates  a  want  of  capacity  in 
them. 

2.  Begin  with  a  clear  statement  of  your  subject,  or  with  an  in- 
troduction which  will  naturally  lead  to  that. 

If  an  introduction  is  used,  it  should  be  striking,  appropriate,  and 
proportionate. 

3.  Observe  a  regular  sequence  in  your  arguments,  that  each  one 
may  naturally  lead  to  the  other. 

4.  Let  your  chief  arguments  be  few  and  cogent;  and  make  them 
bear  as  directly  on  the  point  to  be  proven  as  possible. 

Superfluous  arguments  efface  stronger  ones,  exhaust  patience,  and  en- 
courage the  idea  that  where  weak  arguments  are  used,  the  point  is  weak. 
If  the  few  are  strong,  they  will  be  effectual. 

5.  Express  your  arguments  in  as  few  words  as  possible,  consist- 
ent with  perspicuity. 

6.  Illustrations  should  be  so  intermingled  with  arguments,  as 
to  relieve  and  please  the  mind,  and  thus  produce  variety  without 
confusion. 

7.  Arguments  should  be  arranged  in  the  inverse  order  of  their 
importance  ;  the  least  important  first,  the  strongest  leading  up  the 
rear.     They  should  form  a  climax. 

8.  Opposing  arguments  should  be  considered  in  the  introduction 
or  exordium ;  suasive  ones  in  the  conclusion. 


358  SERMON-WRITING. 


LESSON   GLVIII. 

SERMON-WKITING. 

Many  of  the  preceding  lessons  abound  in  suggestiona 
highly  appropriate  to  this  species  of  writing.  N'othing  will 
here  be  attempted  but  to  present  a  general  view  of  the 
various  methods  of  treating  a  text  of  Scripture. 

1.  In  the  management  of  a  text^  the  first  thing  to  be  considered  is, 
whether  there  be  any  thing  which  requires  explanation,  and  if  so 
to  furnish  it. 

2.  The  text  should  always  be  taken  in  the  precise  sense  which 
it  bears  in  connection  with  the  context,  and  be  treated  in  that 
view. 

3.  The  context  often  supplies  the  most  suitable  introduction. 

4.  There  are  two  methods  of  division — the  textual  and  the 
topical. 

Textual  Methods  of  Division. 

I.  The  N'atural  Division — following  the  order  in  which  tho 
words  of  the  text  stand ;  as  on  Ephes.  i.  3,  Claude's  divisions 
are: 

1.  A  grateful  acknowledgment—''  Blessed  be  God." 

2.  The  title  under  which  Paul  blesses  God — "  The  Father  of  our  Lord 
Jesus  Christ." 

8.  The  reason  why  he  blesses  God — "He  hath  blessed  us." 

4.  The  plenitude  of  this  blessing — *' With  all  blessings." 

5.  The  nature  or  kind  of  them — '*  Spiritual  blessings." 

6.  The  place  where,  &c. — "In  heavenly  places." 

7.  In  tohom  he  has  blessed  us — *'  In  Christ  Jesus." 

II.  The  Observational  Division. 

1.  When  texts  are  clear  in  themselves,  there  is  no  need  of  ex- 
plication, and  observations  only  should  be  made  on  what  they 
teach. 

2.  Most  historical  texts  must  be  discussed  by  observation- 
Henry's  Commentary  famishes  admirable  examples. 


SERMON-WRITING.  359 

6.  Some  texts  require  both  explication  and  observation. 

4.  Observations,  for  the  most  part,  should  be  theological.  Oc- 
casionally and  sparingly,  observations  historical,  philosophical,  and 
critical  may  be  used. 

5.  Observational  preaching  ought  to  be  a  faithful  delineation  of 
persons,  characters,  and  occurrences ;  the  divine  conduct ;  the 
consequences  of  a  vicious  course ;  the  influence  of  divine  agency 
on  the  affairs  of  men  ;  the  experience  of  God's  people,  their  trials, 
their  encouragements,  their  hopes,  their  fears,  &c. 

III.  Propositional  Discourses. 

While  a  single  discourse  may  embrace  many  observations,  a 
single  proposition  may  form  the  basis  of  a  whole  discourse,  or  of 
more.  In  explication  we  treat  of  the  text,  divide  and  discuss  it; 
in  proposition  we  adhere  to  the  general  doctrine  or  subject  to  be 
discussed,  as  stated  in  the  preacher's  own  words;  but  if  such 
statement  contain  any  term  of  doubtful  import,  such  term  should 
at  the  beginning  be  explained,  but  briefly. 

The  doctrine^  theme^  oy  proposition  may  be  divided  into  two  or 
three  other  propositions,  expressed  in  perspicuous  language,  and 
in  as  few  words  as  possible. 

The  arguments  should  be  solid,  the  proofs  clear,  the  citations 
conclusive,  the  examples  striking. 

The  conclusion  should  be  animated  and  powerful ;  and  worthy 
of  the  arguments  advanced. 

Topical  Methods  of  Division. 

These  have  been  already  considered,  under  the  head  of 
"Topics  suggestive  of  Ideas,"  and  of  "The  Oration  or 
Discourse." 

In  preparing  a  sermon,  no  more  important  rule^  perhaps,  can  be 
given  than  this  (in  the  words  of  Dr.  H.  F.  Burder) :  "  Endeavor  to 
ascertain  and  to  exhibit  the  leading  sentiment  intended  to  be  con- 
veyed by  the  text^  and  let  that  leading  sentiment  dictate  the  spirit 
and  plan  of  the  discoursed 

It  is  thus  (he  adds)  that  the  preacher  will  best  secure  unity  of 
design  in  every  discourse,  and  a  suitable  variety  in  his  plans  of  ar- 
rangement.   That  variety  will  naturally  grow  out  of  the  habit  of 


360  THE   WRITING    OF   POETRY. 

yielding  his  mind  to  the  impression  which  the  prominent  idea  of 
a  text  is  calculated  to  produce ;  a  diversity  of  method,  without  any 
direct  effort  to  attain  it,  will  then  almost  follow,  of  course,  from 
a  variety  in  the  texts  and  subjects  themselves. 


LESSON    CLIX. 

THE   WRITING    OF   POETRY. 

An  excellent  writer,  the  late  Prof.  Henry  Reed,  recom- 
mends the  writing  of  verse  as  an  important  help  in  attain- 
ing a  good  prose  style.     He  says, 

The  study  of  English  poetry  being  in  close  affinity  with  the  prose,  ad- 
mits of  an  important  use  in  the  formation  of  a  good  prose  style.  A  mind 
as  earnestly  practical  as  Dr.  Franklin's  observed  this;  and  he  recom- 
mended the  study  of  poetry  and  the  writing  of  verse  for  this  very  purpose ; 
it  was  one  of  the  sources  of  liis  own  excellent  English.  It  is  a  species  of 
early  training  for  prose  writing  which  he  recommended,  having  recognized 
It  in  his  own  case  as  having  given  a  genuine  copiousness  and  command  of 
language.  This  certainly  is  worth  reflection,  too,  that  all  the  great  Eng- 
lish poets,  Chaucer,  Spenser,  Shakspeare,  Milton,  Dryden,  Cowper,  Byron, 
Southey,  and  Wordsworth,  have  displayed  high  powers  as  prose  writers.' 

Poetic  compositions  must  depend  greatly  on  a  native 
endowment  for  it ;  yet  a  taste  and  capacity  for  writing 
well  in  verse^  may  in  part  be  acquired  by  a  careful  and 
frequent  perusal,  in  early  life,  of  the  productions  of  those 
who  excel  in  this  species  of  composition,  and  also  by  com- 
m^itting  large  portions  to  memory — a  practice  that  i? 
worthy  of  adoption  by  all. 

As  daily  communion  with  the  wise,  the  intelligent,  the  well-informed, 
Assists  in  attaining  their  traits  of  character ;  as  we  form  our  tastes,  style  of 
conversation,  and  manners,  by  those  with  whom  we  bring  ourselves  into 
frequent  contact ;  so  an  early  and  studious  familiarity  with  the  poets  can- 
not fail  to  imbue  the  mind  with  a  love  for  poetic  creations,  and  to  aid  in 
giving  to  our  thoughts  and  sentiments  and  observations  the  poetic  form. 

Dr.  Johnson,  in  his  "  Lives  of  the  Poets,"  informs  us  that  Cow- 
ley, Milton,  and  Pope  are  distinguished  among  the  English  poets 


VERSIFICATION.  361 

fey  th©  early  exertion  rf  their  powers ;  but  the  works  of  Cowley 
were  published  in  his  childhood,  and  therefore  of  him  only  can  it 
be  certain  that  his  puerile  performanees  received  no  improvement 
from  his  raaturer  studies. 

Pope,  at  th'C  age  of  fourteen,  wrote  m  smooth  and  harmonious  verse ; 
at  sixteen  he  wrote  his  "Pastorals,"  whieh  have  been  much  admired.  At 
twenty  or  twenty-one,  he  composed  his  celebrated  poetical  "  Essay  on 
Criticism,"  a  work  which,  in  Dr.  Johnson's  opinion,  displays  such  extent 
of  comprehension,  such  nicety  of  distinction,  such  acquaintance  with  man- 
kind, and  such  knowledge  both  of  ancient  and  modern  learning,  as  are  not 
often  attained  by  the  maturest  age  and  longest  experience. 

Goldsmith,  Henry  Kirke  White,  Ohatterton,  and  many  others, 
have  also  distinguished  themselves  in  writing  verse  while  yet  in 
childhood  or  early  youth — a  fact  which  is  here  cited  for  the  pur- 
pose of  encouraging  the  young  to  attempt  to  pursue  them  in  the 
same  walk  of  literature. 

While  the  study  and  reading  of  the  poets  with  great  attention 
and  interest,  together  with  close  and  admiring  observations  of 
nature,  and  notice  of  the  workings  of  one's  own  mind,  are  valuable 
means  of  cultivating  the  poetic  spirit  and  of  preparing  to  write  in 
verse,  it  saves  much  labor  to  make  one's  self  acquainted  with  the 
laws  and  forms  and  diction  of  versification,  so  as  to  be  able  tlie 
more  readily  to  conform  to  them. 


LESSON    GLX. 

VERSIFICATION. 

This  is  the  art  of  making  verses,  being  a  measured 
arrangement  of  words,  containing  a  regular  succession 
ot  accented  and  unaccented  syllables.  By  the  former  is 
meant  the  syllables  upon  which  stress  of  voice  is  laid  in 
pronunciation, 

A  verse  is  a  line  of  poetry,  and  consists  of  a  certain  number  of 
accented  (or  strong)  and  unaccented  (weak)  syllables,  following 
each  other  in  regular  order. 

1« 


362  VERSIFICATION. 

Each  succession  or  group  of  such  syllables  is  called  a  mecisure^ 
or  foot.  These  measures  were  called  feet^  because  among  the 
Greeks  their  time  (in  pronunciation)  was  regulated  by  the  foot  of 
the  Corypheus,  or  director  of  the  choirs. 

Verse  is  of  two  kinds,  Rhyme  and  Blanlc  verse.  Khyme  re- 
quires the  last  syllables  of  different  lines  to  sound  alike,  such  lines 
being  arranged  in  some  regular  order. 

Verses  in  which  there  is  no  such  correspondence  of  sound,  con- 
Btitute  Blank  Verse. 

Verses  are  also  distinguished  by  pauses.,  which,  in  reading,  occur 
at  regular  or  measured  distances.  The  final  pause  occurs  at  the 
end  of  each  line.  The  ccesural  pauses  (so  called  because  they  cut 
or  divide  the  line  into  two  members),  occur  in  other  parts  of  the 
line  or  verse. 

A  Stanza  consists  of  a  certain  number  of  verses,  or  lines.  A 
Couplet  (or  Distich)  is  a  stanza  of  two  verses ;  a  Triplet.,  of  three. 
A  Hemistich.,  is  half  a  verse.  But  this  division  is  not  always 
equal ;  one  of  the  half- verses  does  not  always  contain  the  same 
number  of  syllables  as  the  other. 

Scansion  or  scanning.,  is  the  act  of  dividing  a  verse  into  the 
measures  or  feet  that  compose  it. 

A  complete  verse  (or  line)  is  called  acatalectic  ;  if  not  complete, 
it  is  called  catalectic ;  if  it  has  a  redundant  syllable,  the  verse  is 
called  hypermeter  or  hyper  catalectic. 

Versification  is  perfect^  so  far  as  concerns  measure  (says  Mr.  Mulligan), 
when  the  arrangement  of  the  words  in  a  verse  is  such  that,  regarded  as  mere 
prose,  the  relative  force  which  the  syllables  demand  for  correct  pronuncia- 
tion corresponds  with  the  demands  of  the  measure  of  the  verse ;  in  other 
words,  when  the  good  pronunciation  of  a  passage  naturally  produces  metri- 
cal melody.  To  this  we  may  add,  that  the  perfection  of  verse,  as  regards 
pauses,  consists  in  so  arranging  the  words  that  the  metrical  pauses  demanded 
by  the  laws  of  the  verse  shall  occur  at  places  where  a  pause  is  allowable 
without  injury  to  the  sense.  When  in  both  these  respects  the  demands  of 
the  particular  measure  and  form  of  verse  are  complied  with,  without  greater 
departure  from  the  ordinary  grammatical  arrangement  of  language  than  is 
allowable  and  becoming  in  poetical  compositions,  the  versification  is  good, 
so  far  as  regards  all  but  rhyme  (if  rhyme  is  present). 

All  the  feet  used  in  poetry  consist  either  of  two  or  of  three 
syllables,  and  are  reducible  to  eight  kinds ;  namely,  four  of  two 
syllables,  and  four  of  three,  as  follows ; 


POETIC   FEET.  363 


DlSdYLLABLE.  TbISYLLABLS. 

A  Trochee  —  w  A  Dactyle  —  -^  ^ 

An  Iambus  -^  —  An  Amphibrach  n^  —  >-/ 

A  Spondee An  Anapaest  v^  >w  — 

A  Pyrrhic  w  >>-'  A  Tribrach  ^^  >^  -^ 

A  Tiocnee  has  the  first  syllable  accented,  and  the  last  unao 
cented;  as,  "Hateful,  pettish." 

An  Iambus  has  the  first  syllable  unaccented,  and  the  last  ao 
cented;  as,  "Betray,  consist." 

A  Spondee  has  both  the  words  or  syllables  accented ;  as,  "  The 
pale  mOon." 

A  Pyrrhic  has  both  the  words  or  syllables  unaccented;  as, 
"On  the  tall  tree." 

A  Dactyle  has  the  first  syllable  accented,  and  the  two  latter 
unaccented  ;  as,  "  Laborer,  possible." 

An  Amphibrach  has  the  first  and  last  syllables  unaccented,  and 
the  middle  one  accented ;  as,  "  Delightful,  domestic." 

An  Anapaest  has  the  first  two  syllables  unaccented,  and  the 
last  accented ;  as,  "  Contravene,  acquiesce." 

A  Tribrach  has  all  its  syllables  unaccented ;  as,  "  Nomerable, 
conquerable." 

Some  of  these  feet  may  be  denominated  principal  feet,  as  pieces  of 
poetry  may  be  "wholly  or  chiefly  formed  of  any  of  them.  Such  are  the 
Iambus,  Trochee,  Dactyle,  and  Anapaest.  The  others  may  be  termed 
secondary  feet ;  because  their  chief  use  is  to  diversify  the  numbers,  and  to 
improve  the  verse. 

Iambic  verses  may  be  divided  into  several  species,  according  to 
the  number  of  feet  or  syllables  of  which  they  are  composed. 

Ex.  1. — The  shortest  form  of  the  English  Iambic  consists  of  an  Iambus, 
with  an  additional  short  or  unacc^ted  syllable ;  as. 

Disdaining, 
Complaining, 
Consenting, 
Repenting. 

We  have  no  poem  of  this  measure,  but  it  may  be  met  with  in  stanzttb 
The  Iambus,  with  this  addition,  coincides  with  the  Amphibrach 

Ex.  2. — The  second  form  of  Iambic  is  also  too  short  to  be  contAnne<i 
through  any  great  number  of  lines.     It  consists  of  two  Iambuses, 


364  IAMBIC   VERSES. 


What  place  Is  here! 
"What  scenes  appear  I 
To  me  the  rose 
No  longer  glows. 

It  somotimes  takes,  or  it  may  take,  an  additional  short  syllable ;  as, 

Up6n  a  mountain, 
Beside  a  fountain. 

Ex.  8. — The  third  form  consists  of  three  Iambuses. 

tn  placgs  far  5r  near, 
Or  famous  or  obscure. 
Where  wholesome  is  the  air, 
Or  where  the  most  impure. 

It  sometimes  admits  of  an  additional  short  syllable ;  as, 

Ofir  hSarts  n6  16ng5r  languish. 

Ex.  4, — The  fourth  form  is  made  up  of  four  Iambuses. 

And  may  at  last  mj^  wSary  age, 
Find  out  the  peaceful  hermitage. 

Ex.  6. — The  fifth  species  of  Iambic  consists  of  five  Iambuses ;  and  in 
mlled  Iambic  Pentameter. 

H5w  loved,  h5w  valued  once,  avails  tbSe  n5t, 
To  whom  related,  or  by  whom  begot: 
A  heap  of  dust  alone  remains  of  thee ; 
Tis  all  thou  art,  and  all  the  proud  shall  be. 

Be  wise  t5-day,  'tis  madnSss  t5  dgfSr ; 
Next  day  the  fatal  precedent  will  plead ; 
Thus  on,  till  wisdom  is  push'd  out  of  life. 

This  is  called  the  heroic  measure.  In  its  simplest  form  it  consists  of  five 
Iambuses  ;  but  by  the  admission  of  other  feet,  as  Trochees,  Dactyles,  An  • 
apsests,  &c.,  it  is  capable  of  many  varieties.  Indeed,  most  of  the  English 
common  measures  may  be  varied  in  the  same  way,  as  well  as  by  the  dif- 
ferent position  of  their  pauses. 

Ex.  6.— The  sixth  form  of  Iambic,  is. commonly  called  the  Alexandrine 
measure.     It  consists  of  six  Iambuses. 

F5r  thou  art  but  5f  diist:  bS  hfimblg  and  bS  wise. 

The  Alexandrine  is  sometimes  introduced  into  heroic  rhyme ;  and  when 
uficid  sparingly,  and  with  judgment,  occasions  an  agreeable  variety. 

Th6  sees  shall  waste,  thg  skies  in  smSke  dgcay, 
Eocks  fall  to  dust,  and  mountains  melt  away ; 
But  fixM  his  word,  his  saving  power  remains : 
Thj/  realm  for evor  lasts,  thy  own  Messiah  reigns. 


VERSIFICATION.  365 

Ex.  7.— The  seventh  and  last  form  of  Iambic  measnw,  Is  made  up  of 
seven  Iambuses. 

The  Lord  descended  frSm  above,  tnd  bow'd  thS  heavens  high. 

This  was  anciently  written  in  one  line  ;  but  it  is  now  broken  into  two^ 
the  first  containing  four  feet,  and  the  second  three. 

When  ill  thy  mercies,  0  my  God  I 
My  rising:  soul  surveys, 
*      Transported  with  the  view,  Tm  lost 
In  wonder,  lovo,  and  praise. 

The  stanza  last  given,  is  called  common  metre^  or  measure. 

When  the  verse  (line)  contains  four  iambuses,  it  is  called  long 
metre;  hwt  short  metre  when  it  has  three  iambuses  in  the  first, 
second,  and  fourth  verses,  and  four  iambuses  in  the  third. 

In  all  these  measures  the  accent  or  stress  falls  on  the  even  syl- 
lables (second,  fourth,  &c.) ;  and  every  line,  considered  by  itself,  is, 
for  most  part,  melodious  in  proportion  to  the  strictness  of  the  ob- 
servance of  this  rule. 

In  short,  the  wrong  location  of  the  accent  is  a  great  fault  in 
versification.  The  words  should  be  so  disposed  as  to  create  a  cer- 
tain melody  in  the  ear,  without  labor  to  the  tongue  in  pronuncia- 
tion, or  violence  to  the  sense. 

The  Elegiac  form  of  verse  consists  of  four  heroic  lines,  rhyming 
alternately  ;  as  that  of  Gray  : 

The  curfew  tolls  the  knell  of  parting  day, 
The  lowing  herd  winds  slowly  o'er  the  lea, 

The  ploughman  homeward  plods  his  weary  way, 
And  leaves  the  world  to  darkness  and  to  me. 

The  Spenserian  stanza  contains  eight  lines  in  heroic  measure, 
followed  by  an  Alexandrine  line.  The  first  and  third  lines  rhyme 
with  each  other;  the  second,  fourth,  fifth,  and  seventh  ;  the  sixth, 
eighth,  and  ninth.  It  is  the  stanza  in  which  Spenser  wrote  his 
great  poem,  "  The  Faery  Queen."  Beattie's  "  Minstrel"  is  writ- 
ten in  the  same  measure,  from  which  is  extracted  the  following 
stanza : 

Oft  when  the  winter-storm  had  ceased  to  rave, 
He  roam'd  the  snowy  waste  at  even,  to  view 

The  cloud  stupendous,  from  the  Atlantic  wave 
High  towering,  sail  along  the  horizon  blue ; 


366  TERSIFICATIOIC. 

When,  'midst  the  changeful  scenery  ever  new, 
Fancy  a  thousand  wondrous  forms  descries, 

More  wildly  great  than  ever  pencil  drew ; 
Rocks,  torrents,  gulfs,  and  shapes  of  giant  size, 
And  glittering  cliffs  on  cliffs,  and  fiery  ramparts  rise.'* 

Trochaic  verse  is  of  several  kinds. 

Ex.  1.— The  shortest  Trochaic  verse  consists  of  one  Trochee  and  a  long 
syllable. 

Turn  alt  cease, 
Sink  to  peace. 

This  measure  is  defective  in  dignity,  and  can  seldom  be  used  on  seiioue 
occasions. 

Ex.  2. — The  second  form  of  the  Trochaic  consists  of  two  feet ;  and  is 
ikewise  so  brief,  that  it  is  rarely  used  for  any  very  serious  purpose. 

On  th6  mountain, 
By  a  fountain. 

It  sometimes  contains  two  feet  or  trochees,  with  an  additional  long  sylla^ 
ble;  as, 

In  thg  days  5f  old, 
Fables  plainly  told. 

Ex.  3. — The  third  species  consists  of  three  trochees ;  as, 

"WhSn  6ur  hearts  5re  mourning ; 

or  of  three  trochees,  with  an  additional  long  syllable  ;  as, 

Restlgss  mortals  toil  for  naught ; 
Bliss  in  vain  from  earth  is  sought; 
Bliss,  a  native  of  the  sky. 
Never  wanders.    Mortals,  try ; 
There  you  cannot  seek  in  vain, 
For  to  seek  her  is  to  gain. 

Ex.  4. — The  fourth  Trochaic  species  consists  of /<wrtro shoes;  as, 

Round  us  rSars  thS  tgmpgst  l5udSr. 

This  form  may  take  an  additional  long  syllable,  as  follows : 

IdlS  5ft6r  dinngr  In  his  chair. 
Sat  a  farmer,  ruddy,  fat,  and  fair. 

But  this  measure  is  very  uncommon. 

Ex.  5. — The  fifth  Trochaic  species  is  likewise  uncommon.  It  is  c<>mposed 
Q^Jive  tro3hees. 

All  that  walk  6n  foot  fir  ride  Tn  chfiriStft, 
All  that  dwell  in  palaces  and  erarrets. 


VERSIFICATION,  867 

Ex.  6. — The  sixlh  Trochaic  fomi  consists  of  six  trochees ;  as, 

On  5  mountain,  stretched  bSneath  SL  hoary  wlllBw, 
Lay  a  shepherd  swain,  and  view'd  the  rolling  billow. 

This  seems  to  be  the  longest  Trocliaic  line  that  our  language  admits. 
In  all  these  Trocliaic  measures,  the  accent  is  to  be  placed  on  the  odd 
syllables. 

The  Dactylic  verse  being  very  uncommoD,  we  shall  give  only 
one  example  of  one  species  of  it : 

From  the  IBw  plSasures  of  this  ftll6n  natliro, 
Rise  we  to  higher,  &c. 

AnapcRstic  verses  are  divided  into  several  species. 

Ex  1. — The  shortest  anapaestic  verse  must  be  a  single  anapaest ;  as, 

But  in  vain, 
They  complain. 

This  measure  is,  however,  ambiguous ;  for,  by  laying  the  stress  of  tJie 
voice  on  tho  first  and  third  syllables,  we  might  make  it  a  trochaic.  And 
therefore  the  first  and  simplest  form  of  our  genuine  Anapaestic  verse  is 
made  up  of  two  Anapaests  ;  as, 

BQt  his  courage  'gSn  fail, 

For  no  arts  could  avail. 

This  fomi  admits  of  an  additional  short  syllable : 

Then  hTs  courage  'gan  fail  hTm, 
For  no  arts  could  avail  him. 

Ex.  2. — The  second  species  consists  of  three  Anapaests 

0  yS  wfiods,  sprgad  your  branchSs  apace; 
To  your  deepest  recesses  I  fly  ; 

1  would  hide  with  the  beasts  of  the  chase ; 

I  would  vanish  from  every  eye. 

This  is  a  very  pleasing  measure,  and  much  used,  both  in  solemn  and 
cheerful  subjects. 

Ex.  3. — The  third  kind  of  the  English  Anapaestic  consists  of  four  Ana- 
paests. 

May  I  govSrn  my  pSssTons  with  fibsSlQte  8w5y; 
And  grow  wiser  and  better  as  life  wears  away. 

This  measure  will  admit  of  a  short  syllable  at  the  end  ;  as, 

6n  thS  warm  chegk  5f  yduth,  smiles  3tnd  rosgs  are  blinding. 

Poetry  is  varied  and  improved,  by  the  admission  of  aecondary 
feet  into  its  composition  ;  for  example : 

Mfirmuring,  and  with  him  fled  the  shades  of  night 
The  first  foot  here  is  a  Dactyle;  the  rest  are  Iambics. 


368  *  POETICAL   PAUSES, 

O'er  m&nj  S  frfeen,  m&uf  a  fTerj  AljK 
This  line  contains  three  Amphibrachs  mixed  with  Iambics. 

InnumSrablg  before  th'  Almighty's  throne. 
Here,  in  the  second  foot,  we  find  a  Tribach. 

See  thg  b&ld  youth  strain  iip  the  thr^at'nteg  stgep. 

In  this  line,  the  first  foot  is  a  Trochee  ;  the  second,  a  genuine  Spondee  by 
quantity  ;  the  third,  a  Spondee  by  accent. 
5.  In  the  following  line,  the  first  foot  is  a  Pyrrhic,  the  second  a  Spondae 
ThSt  5b  weak  wings  from  far  pursues  yoiir  flight. 


LESSON  GLXI. 

POETICAL  PAUSES. 

There  should  be  a  pause  at  the  close  of  every  hne,  even 
where  no  pause  is  required  by  the  sense.  The  pause  for 
sense,  or  ccesnral  pause,  is  at,  or  not  far  from,  the  middle  of 
the  verse,  and  is  naturally  made  by  the  voice  in  a  correct 
reading  of  the  verse.  If  it  always  occurred  in  the  same 
place,  monotony  would  be  the  result. 

It  is  a  distinguishing  advantage  of  English  verse,  that  it  allows 
the  panse  to  be  varied  through  four  different  syllables  in  the  line. 

The  pause  may  fall  after  the  4th,  the  5th,  the  6th,  or  the  7th  syllables  ; 
and  according  as  the  pause  is  placed  after  one  or  other  of  these  syllables 
the  melody  of  the  verse  is  much  changed,  its  air  and  cadence  are  diversi- 
fied.   By  this  means,  uncommon  richness  and  variety  are  added  to  verse. 

When  the  pause  falls  earliest,  that  is,  after  the  fourth  syllable, 
the  briskest  melody  is  thereby  formed,  and  the  most  spirited  air 
given  to  the  line. 

Example. — In  the  following  lines  of  the  Rape  of  the  Lock,  Mr.  Pope  nas, 
with  exquifcite  propriety,  suited  the  construction  of  the  verso  to  the  sub- 
ject: 

On  her  white  breast  \  a  sparkling  cross  she  wore 
Which  Jews  might  kiss  \  and  infidels  adore  • 
Her  lively  looks  f  a  sprightly  mind  disclose, 
Quick  as  her  eyes  |  and  as  unfix' d  as  those ; 


POETICAL    PAUSES.  369 

Favors  to  none,  J  to  all  she  smiles  extends, 
vjft  she  rejects,  fl  but  never  once  offends. 

When  the  pause  falls  after  the  fifth  syllable,  dividing  the  line 
into  two  equal  portions,  the  melody  is  sensibly  altered.  The  verse 
loses  that  brisk  and  sprightly  air,  which  it  had  with  the  former 
pause,  and  becomes  more  smooth,  gentle,  and  flowing. 

Example. — Eternal  sunshine  |  of  the  spotless  mind, 

Each  prayer  accepted,  |j  and  each  wish  resign' d. 

When  the  pause  proceeds  to  follow  the  sixth  syllable,  the  tenor 
of  the  music  becomes  solemn  and  grave.  The  verse  marches  now 
with  a  more  slow  and  measured  pace,  than  in  either  of  the  two 
former  cases. 

Example. — The  wrath  of  Peleus'  son,  J  the  direful  spring 
Of  all  the  Grecian  woes,  j  O  goddess,  sing  I 

But  the  grave  solemn  cadence  becomes  still  more  sensible,  when 
the  pause  falls  after  the  seventh  syllable,  which  is  the  nearest 
place  to  the  end  of  the  line  that  it  can  occupy. 

Example. — And  in  the  smooth  description  |  murmur  still. 
Long-loved,  adored  ideas  1  |  all  adieu. 

Besides  the  ccesural^  there  are  sometimes  lesser  or  half-pauses^  as 
in  the  lines : 

Warms'  in  the  sun,''  refreshes'  in  the  breeze, 
Glows'  in  the  stars,"  and  blossoms'  in  the  trees ; 
Lives'  through  all  life,"  extends'  through  all  extent, 
Spreads'  undivided,"  operates'  unspent. 


LESSON  CLXII. 

BULES   FOR   THE   PRINCIPAL    OR   C^SURAL   PAUSE. 

1   There  should  be  only  one  principal  or  full  pause  in  a  line. 

2.  This  pause  may  occur  after  the  fourth,  the  fifth,  the  sixtli, 
or  the  seventh  syllable.  This  distribution  of  the  pause  lays  a 
foundation  for  dividing  English  heroic  verse  into  four  kinds. 
Each  kind,  as  above  shown,  has  its  own  peculiar  melody. 


370  C^SURAL   PAtTSE. 

8.  A  full  pause  should  never  divide  a  word ;  thus, 

A  noble  super  { fluity  it  craves. 
Abhor,  a  perpe  |  tuity  should  stand. 

The  same  rule  does  not  apply  to  a  half-pause^  which,  being 
short  and  comparatively  slight,  is  not  disagreeable  though  it  di- 
vide a  word ;  as, 

Relent  |  less  walls  \  whose  darksome  round  |  contains. 
For  her  |  white  virgins  |  hyme  |  neals  sing. 
In  these  |  deep  solitudes  \  and  aw  |  ful  cells. 

Yet  even  here  the  melody  suffers  in  some  degree.  It  is  desira- 
ble that  a  word  should  he  pronounced  without  any  pause  between 
its  component  syllables, 

4.  The  best  place  for  the  full  pause  is  where  there  is  a  pause 
in  the  sense ;  but  there  may  be  a  pause  in  the  melody  where  the 
sense  requires  none,  but  it  may  not  come  after  any  word  indiffer- 
ently. Some  words,  like  syllables  of  the  same  words,  are  so  inti- 
mately connected  as  not  to  bear  a  separation  even  by  a  pause ; 
hence, 

5.  A  substantive  must  not  be  separated,  by  a  pause,  from  its 
article ;  as. 

If  Delia  smile,  the  |  flowers  begin  to  spring. 

It  should  be  pronounced — 

If  Delia  smile,  |  the  flowers  begin  to  spring. 

6.  The  full  pause  must  not  come  between  an  adjective  and  the 
noun  following  it,  and  qualified  by  it:  thus. 

Of  thousand  bright  \  inhabitants  of  air 

The  sprites  of  fiery  |  termagants  inflame. 

The  rest,  his  many-color'd  1  robe  conceal'd,  &c. 

But  when  the  noun  precedes  its  adjective,  a  full  pause  may  be 
interposed,  for  a  conception  of  a  noun  may  be  formed  though  un- 
accompanied by  an  adjective. 

7.  When  an  adverb  precedes  the  verb,  it  should  not  be  sep- 
arated from  it  by  a  full  pause ;  when  it  follows  the  verb,  a  pause 
may  ])e  interposed.     Hence  these  lines  are  unmelodious: 

And  which  it  much  J  becomes  you  to  forget. 
*Tis  one  thing  madly  |  to  disperse  my  store. 


MKAL   PATJSES.  371 

At  the  close  of  a  line,  where  a  pause  always  occurs,  it  may  come 
between  tne  verb  and  the  adverb  which  commences  the  following 
line;  as 

While  yet  he  spoke,  the  Prince  advancing  drew 

Nigh  to  the  lodge,  &c. 

8.  A  full  pause  may  occur  between  a  subject  (or  nominative; 
and  the  verb,  and  whether  active  or  passive,  if  the  verb  follow  it, 
hut  not  otherwise. 

9.  A  full  pause  may  come  between  a  transitive  verb  and  its 
object,  even  when  the  object  precedes  the  verb,  thus: 

The  peer  now  spreads  \  the  glittering  forceps  wide. 
As  ever  sullied  |  the  fair  face  of  light. 
No  happier  task  |  these  faded  eyes  pursue. 

10.  Words  connected  with  coiy unctions  and  prepositions  admit 
a  full  pause  between  them,  as : 

Assume  what  sexes  \  and  what  shape  they  please. 
The  light  militia  |  of  the  lower  sky. 

11.  Conjunctions,  prepositions,  and  articles,  being  dependent 
for  meaning  and  utility  upon  the  words  that  follow  them,  must 
not  be  separated  from  those  by  a  full  pause,  as : 

Taltliybius  and  |  Emybates  the  good. 


LESSON  OLXIII. 

RULES   FOR   FINAL   PAUSES. 

1.  In  the  first  line  of  a  couplet,  the  concluding  pause  differs 
little,  if  at  all,  from  the  caesural  pause  that  divides  the  line,  and 
hence  the  preceding  rules  apply  to  it. 

2.  The  concluding  pause  of  the  couplet  (that  of  the  second  line) 
is  not  graceful  unless  there  be  also  a  pause  in  the  sense.  Hence 
it  follows  that  a  couplet  ought  always  to  be  concluded  with  some 
close  in  the  sense,  at  least  to  the  amount  of  a  comma.  This  rule 
is  seldom  transgressed ;  but  the  following  deviations  are  found  in 
Pope: 

Nothing  is  foreign :  ^,arts  relate  to  whole ; 
One  all-extending,  all-preserving  soul 
CJonnects  each  being— 


372  POETIC   PAUSES.  ^ 

Another: 

To  draw  fresh  colors  from  the  vernal  Howers, 
To  steal  from  rainbows  ere  they  drop  in  showers 
A  brighter  wash — 

A  general  rule  is,  that  the  sense  mnst  never  be  impaired  or 
obscured  by  the  position  of  any  pause,  as  it  is  the  following  lines: 

Ulysses,  first  |  in  public  cj.res,  she  found. 
And: 

Who  rising,  high  \  the  imperial  sceptre  raised. 

With  respect  to  inversiari,  many  words  which  cannot  bear  h 
separation  (by  a  pause)  in  their  natural  order,  admit  a  pause  when 
inverted.  And  it  may  be  added,  that  when  two  words,  or  two 
members  of  a  sentence,  in  their  natural  order,  can  be  separated  by 
a  pause,  such  separation  is  always  allowable  in  an  inverted  order. 
An  inverted  period,  which  deviates  from  the  natural  train  of 
ideas,  requires  to  be  marked  in  some  measure,  even  by  pauses  in 
the  sense,  that  the  parts  may  be  distinctly  known.  Take  the  fol- 
lowing examples : 

As  with  cold  lips  1 1  kiss'd  the  sacred  veil. 
With  other  beauties  |  charm  my  partial  eyes. 
Full  in  my  view  \  set  all  the  bright  abode. 
With  words  like  these  |  the  troops  Ulysses  ruled. 
Back  to  the  assembly  roll  |  the  thronging  train.    . 
Nor  for  their  grief  \  the  Grecian  host  I  blame. 

The  same  when  the  separation  is  made  at  the  close  of  the  first 
line  of  the  couplet : 

For  spirits,  freed  from  mortal  laws,  with  ease, 
Assume  what  sexes  and  what  shapes  they  please. 

The  pause  is  tolerable  even  at  the  close  of  the  couplet,  for  the 
reason  just  now  suggested,  that  inverted  members  require  some 
slight  pause  in  the  sense : 

'Twas  where  the  plane-tree  spreads  its  shades  around 
The  altars  heaved ;  and  from  the  crumbling  ground 
A  mighty  dragon  shot. 

Variety  in  verse  is  due  to  the  place  of  the  pause, — A  number  of 
successive  lines  having  the  pause  in  the  same  place  is  fatiguing, 
and  ought  not  to  occur,  except  where  there  is  a  uniformity  in  the 
members  of  a  thought,  as  in  tlie  following  examples: 


POETIC  PAUSES.  373 

By  foreign  hands  |  thy  dying  eyes  were  closed, 
By  foreign  hands  |  thy  decent  limbs  composed. 
By  foreign  hands  j  thy  humble  grave  adorned. 

Again : 

Bright  as  the  sun,  |  her  eyes  the  gazers  strike, 
And,  like  the  sun,  J  they  shine  on  all  alike. 

It  has  been  laid  down  as  a  general  rule^  that  heroic  verse  admits 
b.  csBsural  pause  only  in  one  of  four  parts  of  a  line — after  the  fourth, 
the  fifth,  the  sixth,  or  seventh  syllable.  But  this  rule  may  he 
varied  where  the  sense  or  expression  requires  a  variation,  and 
that,  so  far,  the  melody  may  be  sacrificed.  Hence,  in  Milton,  we 
not  unfrequently  find  the  cassural  pause  after  the  first,  the  second, 
or  the  third  syllable — a  license  that  sometimes  adds  vigor  to  the 
expression,  as  in  the  following  examples : 

-  Thus  with  the  year 


Seasons  return,  but  not  to  me  returns 

Day,  I  or  the  sweet  approach  of  even  or  mom. 

Celestial  voices,  to  the  midnight  air, 
Sole  I  or  responsive  each  to  other's  note. 

And  over  them  triumphant  Death  his  dart 
Shook,  I  but  delay' d  to  strike. 

And  wild  uproar 

Stood  ruled,  \  stood  vast  infinitude  confined, 

And  hardening  in  his  strength, 

Glories,  |  for  never  since  created  man 
Met  such  embodied  force. 

From  his  slack  hand  the  garland  wreathed  for  Eve 
Down  dropp'd,  |  and  all  the  faded  roses  shed. 


LESSON  CLXIV. 


ACCENTS    IN   VERSE. 


Supposing  every  long  syllable  to  be  accented,  there  is  in  every 
line  one  accent  more  prominent  than  the  rest,  being  that  which 
precedes  the  csesural  pause.  It  is  distinguished  into  two  kinds — • 
one  that  is  immediately  before  the  pause,  and  one  that  is  divided 


374  ACCENTS   IN   VERSE. 

from  the  pause  by  a  short  syllable.     The  former  belongs  to  lines 
of  the  first  and  third  order ;  the  latter  to  those  of  the  second  and 
fourth. 
Examples  of  the  first  kind : 

Smooth  flow  the  waves  |  the  zephyrs  gently  play, 
Belinda  smiled  ]  and  all  the  world  was  gay. 

He  raised  his  azure  wand  \  and  thus  began. 

Examples  of  the  other  kind : 

There  lay  three  garters  |  half  a  pair  of  gloves, 
And  all  the  trophies  g  of  his  former  loves. 

Our  humble  province  I  is  to  tend  the  fair, 
Not  a  less  pleasing  |  though  less  glorious  care. 

And  hew  triumphal  arches  f  to  the  ground. 

It  is  a  great  defect  in  the  composition  of'verse  to  put  a  low  word 
incapable  of  an  accent^  in  the  place  where  this  accent  should  be; 
and  no  single  circumstance  contributes  more  to  the  energy  of  verse 
than  to  put  an  important  word  where  the  accent  should  be — a 
word  that  merits  a  peculiar  emphasis.  The  following  are  faulty 
linos : 

Of  leaving  what  [  is  natural  and  fit. 
Not  yet  purged  off,  I  of  spleen  and  sour  disdain. 
No  pardon  vile  f  obscurity  should  find. 
When  love  was  all  \  an  easy  monarch's  care. 

When  this  fault  is  at  the  end  of  a  line  that  closes  a  couplet,  it 
destroys  the  melody  altogether: 

But  of  this  frame  the  bearings,  and  the  ties, 
The  strong  connections,  nice  dependencies. 

For  a  fuller  exhibition  of  the  subject,  consult  the  Author's  edi- 
tion of  *'Kames'  Elements,"  whence  the  observations  on  Pauses 
and  Accents  have  been  drawn,  pp.  309-342. 

EULES   FOR   RHYMING   SYLLABLES. 

1.  The  syllables  must  be  accented  syllables. 

2.  The  vowel  sounds  must  be  the  same. 

8.  If  these  syllables  end  with  consonants,  the  consonantal 
sounds  must  be  the  same. 

ii  The  consonants  preceding  the  vowel  must  be  different  from 


RHYMING   SYLLABLES,  375 

each  other  in  form  and  sound ;  that  is,  no  syllable  must  be  put  in 
rhyme  with  itself. 

5.  It  is  to  be  noticed  that  not  the  letters^  hut  the  sounds  of  the 
letters^  constitute  rhyme;  hence  such  words  as  plough  and  enough^ 
though  ending  in  similar  letters  are  not  words  that  rhyme  to- 
gether, being  different  in  sound  when  pronounced.  The  words 
huff  and  rough  though  unlike  in  form,  yet  being  of  the  sanr^e 
sound,  rhyme  together. 

6.  Lines  ending  in  trochees  require  the  last  two  syllables  to 
rhyme;  those  ending  with  a  dactyle,  require  the  last  three  to 
rhyme. 

7.  The  more  numerous  the  consonants  that  enter  into  the  rhymr- 
ing  syllables^  the  stronger  and  hetter  is  the  rhyme. 

Examples  of  strong  and  perfect  rhymes : 

It  is  not  that  I  may  not  have  incurr'd 

For  my  ancestral  faults,  or  mine  the  wound 

I  bleed  withal,  and,  had  it  been  conferr'd 
With  a  just  weapon,  it  had  flow'd  unbound; 

To  thee  I  do  devote  it — thou  shalt  take 

The  vengeance,  which  shall  yet  be  sought  and  found, 

Which  if  /have  not  taken  for  the  sake — 

But  let  that  pass — I  sleep,  but  thou  shalt  yet  awake. 

Ghilde  Harold. 

The  rhymes  in  the  first  and  third  lines  above,  abounding  in 
tonsonants  after  the  vowel  are  particularly  rich  and  strong.  The 
consonants  he/ore  the  vowel  in  all  the  rhymes,  it  will  be  observed, 
are  unlike ;  in  the  first  nc,  in  the  third  nf;  in  the  second  w^  in  the 
fourth,  w5,  &o.  The  above  rules  are  exemplified  in  the  next  quo- 
taticn: 

Three  days  before  my  Mary's  death, 

We  walk'd  by  Grassmere  shore ; 
"  Sweet  lake  I"  she  said  with  faltering  breath, 
**  I  ne'er  shall  see  thee  more !" 

John  Wilson. 


LESSON   CLXV. 

IMPERFECT   RHYMES. 

Imperfect  rhymea*  end  in   syllables  whose  vowel  sounds  and 
whose  consonants  are  not  exactly  the  same,  but  more  or  less 


376  IMPERFECT   RHYMES. 

nearly  approach  to  sameness,  and  hence  are  less  or  more  imperfect 
in  their  rhymes. 

1.  There  are  rhymes  addressed  to  the  eye  which  are  not  rhymes 
when  addressed  to  the  ear^  and  hence  are  not  admissible :  head. 
and  head;  breath  and  beneath;  increase  and  ease. 

2.  Rhymes  when  they  sound  aliJce  are  admissible^  though  they  • 
differ  to  the  eye  in  form;  thus,  soul  and  stole;  eye  and  sky  ;  smile  , 
and  isle. 

S.  As  h  is  not  an  articulate  sound  it  is  not  to  be  counted  in  the 
beginning  of  a  word;  hence  air  and  hair^  I  and  high^  are  not 
legitimate,  because  parts  before  the  vowels  a  and  i  are  not  dif- 
ferent. 

Exa/mples  of  imperfect  rhymes : 

And  without  utterance,  save  the  shrug  or  sigh 

Deal  round  to  happy  fools  its  speechless  obloquy.         Byron* 

That  we  become  a  part  of  what  has  been 

And  grow  upon  the  spot,  all-seeing  but  unseen.  lb. 

Of  an  enamor'd  goddess,  and  the  cell 

Haunted  by  holy  love — the  earliest  oracle.  lb. 

Double,  Triple,  and  Middle  Rhymes. 

The  following  examples  are  taken  from  Fowler's  English 
Grammar : 

Double  Rhymes^  where  an  unaccented  follows  an  accented 
syllable : 

The  sportive  Autumn  claim' d  by  rights 

An  archer  for  her  lover  ; 
And  even  in  winter's  dark,  cold  nightB, 
A  charm  he  could  dl&cover. 

Her  routs  and  balls  and  fireside  joy, 

For  this  time  were  his  reasons  ; 
In  short.  Young  Love's  a  gallant  boy 

That  likes  all  times  and  seasons.  CampbeU, 

Treble  Rhyme.,  shows  an  accented  syllable  followed  by  two 
an  accented  syllables : 

0  ye  immortal  gods  !  what  is  XhQogony  f 
Oh  thou,  too,  immortal  man  !  what  is  ^^^cAanthropy  f 

O  world  that  was  and  is  I  what  is  aosmogony  t 
Some  people  have  accused  me  of  rm&antkro^.  Byron, 


RHYMES.  377 

Middle  Ehyrae  is  that  which  exists  between  the  last  accented 

syllables  of  the  two  sections  of  a  line. 

You,  hustling  and  Jostling^ 

Forget  each  care  and  pain ; 
I,  Ustless  yet  restless^ 
Find  every  prospect  vain.  Burns* 

And  now  there  came  both  mist  and  snow, 

And  it  grew  wondrous  cold ; 
And  ice,  mast-Ai^A  came  floating  by 

As  green  as  emerald. 
The  ice  was  here^  the  ice  was  there, 

The  ice  was  all  around ; 
It  crack'd  and  growVd,  and  roar'd  and  howled 
Like  noises  in  a  swound.  Coleridge. 

"The  cheering  and  enlivening  power  of  Rhyme,"  says  Lord 
Karnes,  "  is  remarkable  in  poems  of  short  lines,  where  the  rhymes 
return  upon  the  ear  in  quick  succession ;  for  which  reason,  rhyme 
is  perfectly  well  adapted  to  gay,  light,  and  airy  subjects." 

Oh,  the  pleasing,  pleasing  anguish, 
When  we  love  and  when  we  languish  I 

Wishes  rising, 

Thoughts  surprising, 

Pleasure  courting, 

Charms  transporting, 

Fancy  viewing 

Joys  ensuing. 
Oh,  the  pleasing,  pleasing  anguish  I 

For  that  reason,  such  frequent  rhymes  are  very  improper  for 
any  severe  or  serious  passion ;  the  dissonance  between  the  sub- 
ject and  the  melody  is  very  sensibly  felt.     Witness  the  following 

Now  under  hanging  mountains, 
Beside  the  fall  of  fountains, 
Or  where  Hebrus  wanders, 
Rolling  in  meanders 

All  alone. 

Unheard,  unknown. 

He  makes  his  moan, 

And  calls  her  ghost, 

For  ever,  ever,  ever  lost; 
^  Now  with  furies  surrounded, 

Despairing,  confounded. 
He  trembles,  he  glows. 
Amidst  Rodo[>e's  snowf . 


378  BLANK   VERSE. 


LESSON  GLXVI. 

BLANK   VERSE. 

Blank  verse  is  a  more  free  and  noble  species  of  versification  than 
rhyme.  The  principal  defect  in  rhyme,  is  the  full  close  which  it 
forces  upon  the  ear  at  the  end  of  every  couplet.  Blank  verse  is 
freed  Yrom  this,  and  allows  the  lines  to  run  into  each  other  with 
as  great  liberty  as  the  Latin  hexameter  permits,  perhaps  with 
greater.  Hence  it  is  particularly  suited  to  subjects  of  dignity  and 
force,  which  demand  more  free  and  manly  numbers  than  rhyme. 

The  constraint  and  strict  regularity  of  rhyme,  are  unfavorable  to  the 
sublime,  or  to  the  highly  pathetic  strain.  An  epic  poem,  or  a  tragedy, 
would  be  fettered  and  degraded  by  it.  It  is  best  adapted  to  compositions 
of  a  temperate  strain,  where  no  particular  vehemence  is  required  in  the 
sentiments,  nor  great  sublimity  in  the  style;  such  as  pastorals,  elegies, 
epistles,  satires,  &c.  To  these  it  communicates  that  degree  of  elevation 
which  is  proper  for  them ;  and  without  any  other  assistance,  sufficiently 
distinguishes  the  style  from  prose.  He  who  should  write  such  poems  in 
blank  verse,  would  render  his  work  harsh  and  unpleasing.  In  order  to 
support  a  poetical  style,  he  would  be  obliged  to  aiiect  a  pomp  of  language 
unsuitable  to  the  subject. 

The  present  form  of  English  heroic  rhyme  in  couplets,  is  a  modern  spe- 
cies of  versification.  The  measure  generally  used  in  the  days  of  Queen 
Elizabeth,  King  James,  and  King  Charles  I.,  was  the  stanza  of  eight  lines, 
such  as  Spenser  employs,  borrowed  from  the  Italian  ;  a  measure  very  con- 
strained and  artificial. 

Waller  was  the  first  who  brought  couplets  into  vogue ;  and  Dry  den  af- 
terwards established  the  usage.  Waller  first  smoothed  our  verse ;  Dryden 
perfected  it.  Pope's  versification  has  a  peculiar  character.  It  is  flowing 
and  smooth  in  the  highest  degree  ;  far  more  labored  and  correct  than  that 
of  any  who  went  before  him.  He  introduced  one  considerable  change  into 
heroic  verse,  by  totally  throwing  aside  the  triplets,  or  three  lines  rhyming 
together,  in  which  Dryden  abounded.  Dryden's  versification,  however, 
Las  very  great  merit ;  and,  like  all  his  productions,  has  much  spirit,  mixed 
with  carelessness.  It  is  not  so  smooth  and  correct  as  Pope's  ;  it  is,  how- 
ever, more  varied  and  easy.  He  subjects  himself  less  to  the  rule  of  closing 
the  sense  with  a  couplet ;  and  frequently  takes  the  liberty  of  making  his 
ocuplets  run  into  one  another,  with  somewhat  of  the  freedom  of  blank 
/erse. 


PRELIMINARIES   TO    VERSIFICATION.  379 

In  blank  verse  it  is  an  important  general  rule  that  each  lin6% 
shall  close  with  an  important  word^  e.  g. : 

What  though  the  field  be  lost, 
All  is  not  lost ;  the  unconquerable  will 
And  study  of  revenge,  immortal  hate, 
And  courage  never  to  submit  or  yield, 
And  what  is  also  not  to  be  overcome  ; 
That  glory  never  sh^ll  his  wrath  or  might 
Extort  from  me.  Paradise  Loitm 


LESSON  CLXVII. 

PRELIMINARIES   TO   VERSIFICATION. 

1.  The  easiest  preliminary  is  to  scan  various  kinds  of 
verse,  and  to  render  the  measures  of  each  familiar  to  the 
mind. 

It  will  be  best  to  confine  the  attention  at  first  to  one  kind,  the  Iambic 
measures,  as  being  those  in  most  common  use.  The  Heroic  is  adapted  to 
every  kind  of  subject,  and  is  fitted  equally  for  rhyme  or  blank  verse. 

2.  Another  preliminary,  is  that  of  arranging  words  in 
proper  order  to  meet  the  conditions  of.  certain  kinds  of 
verse,  without  regard  to  the  sense  of  the  passage.  These 
are  called  nonsense  verses.     Example  : 

Heroic  verse. 

Their  robes  obsequious  at  their  wholesome  fare. 
O'er  hill  supply  their  beds  and  cheerful  cups. 

3.  Another  useful  preliminary,  is  the  providing  of  epi" 
thets  suitable  to  any  words  that  may  be  assigned,  as  they 
constitute  so  important  a  feature  in  every  good  description. 

An  epithet  (descriptive  of  the  qualities  or  properties  of  any  ob- 
ject) consists  either  of  single  words,  as  gloomy  cavern,  extended 
plain ;  or  of  compound'  words,  such  as  half-filled  vase,  white- 
washed room,  laughter-loving  nymph,  meelc-eyed  moon,  head- 
strong  ])assion,  (fee. 


380  PRELIMINARIES   TO   VERSIFICATION. 

If  passion  were  the  word,  such  epithets  as  the  following  might  be  so- 
lected  as  applicable  :  strong,  impetuous,  boiling,  ardent,  vehement,  ungoverii' 
able,  irregular,  boisterous,  horrid,  gloomy,  sad,  morose,  implacable,  dreadful^ 
severe,  secret,  blind,  flaming,  unbridled,  wnruly,  cruel,  untc'.nable,  head- 
strong,  &c.,  &c. 

Much  of  the  'beauty  of  descriptive  poetry  depends  on  a  right 
choice  of  epithets^  and  hence  good  care  should  be  observed  in  the 
use  of  them.  They  should  not  he  mere  expletiveSy  to  fill  out  a  line, 
or  to  make  the  rhyme  correspond.  Every  epithet  should  either 
add  a  new  idea  to  the  vrord  it  qualifies,  or  at  least  serve  to  elevate 
its  known  signification. 

General  epithets,  that  leave  the  signification  of  the  word  undetermined, 
and  are  become  trite  and  hackneyed  in  poetical  language,  are  not  to  be 
used.  They  may  indeed  raise  the  style  above  that  of  prose,  but  they  fail  to 
illustrate  and  make  prominent  and  impressive  the  object  described.  On 
the  other  hand,  it  is  in  the  power  of  a  man  of  genius,  by  one  well-chosen 
epithet  to  execute  a  description,  and  by  means  of  a  single  word  to  paint  an 
entire  scene  to  the  imagination.  The  best  descriptions  are  simple  and 
concise;  they  give  us  ideas  which  a  painter  or  statuary  could  work  after; 
*ind  this  is  the  best  test  of  merit  in  any  description. 


LESSON  CLXVIII, 

PRELIMINARIES  TO   VERSIFICATION. 

4.  Another  preliminary  is  the  finding  of  rhymes  to  cor- 
respond with  words  prescribed,  of  which,  for  this  purpose, 
the  teacher  may  give  out  a  list — an  exercise  to  be  often  re- 
peated, until  considerable  facility  shall  be  acquired.  To 
those  who  intend  to  make  versification  a  pursuit  and  a 
practice,  such  a  work  as  "  Walker's  Rhyming  Dictionary" 
would  prove  a  great  saving  of  time  and  labor. 

(1.)  Thus  if  the  word  assigned  were  blame,  the  following  are  among  those 
which  rhyme  with  it :  came,  dame,  same,  game,  name,  tame,  frame,  shame, 
inflame,  became,  overcame,  defame,  misname,  &c. 

Perfect  rhymes  are,  aim,  claim,  maim,  acclaim,  declaim,  exclaim,  pro- 
claim, reclaim.  Admissible  rhymes  are,  dam,  ham,  clam,  sham,  dram,  &c. ; 
hem,  them,  phlegm,  &c. ;  theme,  scheme,  ream,  dream,  gleam,  &c. 


PRELIMINARIES    TO   VERSIFICATION.  381 

(2.)  Find  rhpmes^  perfect  andimperfect,  for  the  following  words:  Lakes, 
lands,  voice,  rapture,  soar,  hour,  sing,  cloud,  knew,  bathe,  lays,  oend, 
fear,  adore,  forgiven,  born,  complain,  day,  reign,  led,  rage,  horn,  heap, 
rcturr,  lyre,  poor,  lust,  care.  &c.,  &c. 

5.  Change  the  words  in  italics  and  substitute  others  that 

will  form  rhymes  and  give  the  same  sense. 

Now  I  gain  the  mountain's  summit^ 
What  a  landscape  lies  below ! 
No  clouds,  no  vapors  intervene, 
But  the  gay,  the  open  'view 
Does  the  face  of  nature  show, 
In  all  the  hues  of  heaven's  arch  / 
And,  swelling  to  embrace  the  light, 
Spreads  around  beneath  the  prospect. 

Old  castles  on  the  cliffs  arise. 
Proudly  towering  in  the  heavens  ! 
Rushing  from  the  woods,  the  epirea 
Seem  from  hence  ascending j^aw^s  / 
Half  his  beams  K^oMo  pours 
On  the  yellow  mountain  heads  I 
Gilds  the  fleeces  of  the  sheep 
And  glitters  on  the  broken  rocks  I 

Below  me  trees  unnumber'd  rise. 
Beautiful  in  various  colors : 
The  gloomy  pine,  the  poplar  blue, 
The  yellow  beach,  the  sable  yew. 
The  slender  fir  that  taper  grows, 
The  sturdy  oak  with  broad-spread  branches} 
And  beyond  the  purple /or^^^. 
Haunt  of  Phillis,  queen  of  love ! 
Gaudy  as  the  opening  morning^ 
Lies  a  long  and  level  lawn. 
On  which  a  dark  hill,  steep  and  elevated. 
Holds  and  charms  the  wondering  eye  1 

I  hate  that  drum's  discordant  noise^ 

Parading  round  and  round  and  round : 

To  thoughtless  youth  it  pleasure  gives^ 

And  lures  from  cities  and  from  fields, 

To  sell  their  liberty  for  charms 

Of  tawdry  lace  and  glittering  weapons  ; 

And  when  Ambition's  voice  enjoins, 

To  march,  and  fight,  and  fall  in  foreign  lands. 

I  hate  that  drum's  discordant  din, 
Parading  round  and  round  and  round ; 


382  PRELIMINARIES    TO    VERSIFICATION. 

To  me  it  talks  of  ravaged  plains, 
And  burning  towns,  and  ruined  rtcstics, 
And  mangled  limbs  and  dying  groans, 
And  widows'  tears,  and  orphans'  sobs, 
And  all  that  misery's  hand  confers 
To  fill  the  catalogue  of  human  woes. 

Tlie  multiplication  of  exercises  of  this  kind  would  greatly  assist 
in  preparing  one  to  write  original  verses  in  rhyme.  Teachers 
will  find  no  difficulty  in  preparing  the  exercise  as  above  indicated. 


LESSON  GLXIX. 

VERSIFICATION — (CONTINUED). 

6.  Another  preliminary  to  Versification,  is  the  adjust- 
ment of  lines  to  the  demands  of  verse^  the  words  of  which 
have  been  disarranged.  The  words  must  be  restored  to 
such  order  as  the  measure,  or  the  rhyme  also,  may  require. 

(1.)  Replace  the  words  in  the  following  lines  so  as  to 
conform  to  the  rhymes  peculiar  to  the  Sonnet : 

When  I  roved  last  these  green  winding  wood-walks, 

Shady  sweet  pathways  and  green  winding  walks, 

Anna  would  oft-times  seek  the  silent  scene, 

In  the  lone  retreat  her  beauties  shrouding. 

I  hear  no  more  in  the  shade  her  footsteps  ; 

Only  her  image  in  these  pleasant  ways 

Me  self-wandering  meets,  where  in  happier  days 

With  the  fair-haired  maid  I  free  converse  held. 

The  little  cottage  which  she  loved  I  passM, 

The  cottage  which  did  once  my  all  contain ; 

Of  days  it  spake  which  come  again  must  ne'er — 

To  my  heart  spake,  and  my  heart  was  moved  much. 

"  Gentle  maid,  now  fair  befall  thee,"  said  I, 

And  turned  me  from  the  cottage  with  a  sigh. 

To  prepare  the  way  for  performing  the  exercise  just  given,  it 
may  be  necessary  to  anticipate  what  was  intended  for  another 
chapter,  and  describe  the  Sonnet,  of  which  an  example  is  fur- 
nished above. 


PRELIMINARIES    TO   VERSIFICATION.  383 

It  is  a  composition  of  fourteen  lines  of  the  same  length.  These  lines  are 
Iambic,  of  eleven  syllables  each,  and  divided  into  two  divisions,  the  first 
embracing  the  first  eight  lines,  which  contain  but  two  rhymes  ;  the  second 
division  is  subdivided  into  two  parts,  of  three  lines  each,  containing  two 
more  rhymes.  The  rhymes  in  these  parts,  however,  are  not  uuifoimly 
governed  by  the  same  rules.  The  best  arrangement  is  where  the  first  line 
rhymes  with  the  fourth,  the  fifth,  and  the  eighth :  and  the  second  rhyme§ 
with  the  third,  sixth,  and  seventh. 

Another  approved  arrangement  is  this :  rhymes  are  formed  in  respect  to 
the  first,  fourth,  fifth,  and  eighth ;  the  second  and  third ;  the  sixth  and 
seventh ;  the  ninth,  eleventh,  and  thirteenth ;  and  the  tenth,  twelfth,  and 
fourteenth. 

In  the  above  example,  the  rhymes  do  not  exactly  conform  to 
either  of  the  arrangements  just  described. 

(2.)  Put  the  words  of  the  following  verses  in  their  proper 
places,  so  as  to  conform  to  the  principles  of  the  lamhio^ 
Tetrameter  : 

Night  closed  the  conqueror's  way  around. 

And  lightnings  show'd  the  distant  hill 
Where  those  that  dreadful  day  who  lost 

Stood,  faint  and  few,  but  still  fearless ! 
The  patriot's  zeal,  the  soldier's  hope, 

Dimm'd  forever,  and  forever  cross' d — 
Oh  I  who  what  heroes  feel  shall  say. 

When  all's  lost  but  life  and  honor  ! 

Of  freedom's  dream  the  sad  last  hour. 

And  slowly  by  moved  valor's  task. 
While  they  watch'd  mute  till  morning's  beam 

And  give  them  light  to  die  should  rise  !— 
There  is  a  world  where  souls  are  free, 

Where  tyrants  nature's  bliss  taint  not ; 
If  death  be  that  world's  bright  opening, 

Oh  I  who  in  this  would  live  a  slave  ? 

(3.)  Place  in  right  order  the  words  of  the  following 
S^?enserian  Stanza  : 

All  earth  are  still  and  heaven — though  not  in  sleep, 
But  as  when  feeling  most  breathless  we  grow ; 
And  as  we  stand  silent  too  deep  in  thoughts  :— 
Still  we  are  all  earth  and  heaven  :  from  the  high  nost 
To  the  luU'd  lake  of  stars  and  mountain  coast, 
All  concentred  is  in  a  life  intense, 


384  PRELIMINARIES   TO   VERSIFICATION. 

Where  not  a  beam,  nor  leaf  is  lost  nor  air, 

But  of  being  hath  a  part  and  a  sense 

Of  that  which  of  all  is  Creator  and  defence. 

(4.)  Place  in  proper  order  the  words  of  the  following 
passage  in  Blank  Verse. 

Oh,  friendly  to  the  best  pursuits  of  man, 
Friendly  to  peace,  to  thought,  to  virtue, 
Domestic  life  pass'd  in  rural  pleasure ! 
Few  thy  value  know,  and  thy  sweets  few  taste ; 
Thy  favors  though  many  boast,  and  affect 
To  choose  and  understand  thee  fr  r  their  own 
But  foolish  man  his  proper  blise  foregoes, 
As  his  first  progenitor  even,  and  quits 
In  Paradise  though  placed  (for  Earth  still  hae 
Of  her  youthful  beauty  some  traces  left), 
For  transient  joy  substantial  happiness. 
Scenes  for  contemplation  form'd,  and  to  nurse 
Of  wisdom  the  growing  seeds  ;  that  suggest. 
By  ev'ry  pleasing  image  they  present, 
Such  reflections  as  meliorate  the  heart. 
Exalt  the  mind,  and  compose  the  passions  ; 
Such  scenes  as  these,  'tis  his  supreme  delight 
To  defile  with  blood,  and  fill  with  riot. 

(5.)  It  is  recommended  to  the  teacher  to  dictate  fre- 
quently to  the  class,  passages  of  various  forms  of  poetry, 
with  words  displaced  as  above,  to  be  properly  arranged 
by  the  student,  in  order  to  cultivate  a  taste  for  the 
melody  of  verse,  and  to  acquire  the  art  of  arranging 
words  so  as  to  meet  the  demands  of  melody  in  every 
kind  of  verse. 

(6.)  The  writer  of  verse  must  be  acquainted,  not  only 
with  the  Figures  of  Rhetoric  already  illustrated,  but  with 
the  Figures  of  Etymology  and  Syntax — and  also  with  cer- 
tain grammatical  irregularities  and  other  peculiarities  in 
which  poets  are  allowed  to  indulge,  in  view  of  the  diffi- 
culties encountered  in  meeting  the  demands  of  verse. 


ETYMOLOGICAL  FIGURES.  SB5 


LESSON  GLXX. 

ETYMOLOGICAL   AND   SYNTACTICAL   FIGURES. 

Th(3  former  relate  to  certain  modifications  of  the  fonn 
of  words : 

1.  AphcBresis,  is  the  omission  of  one  or  more  of  the  first  letters 
of  a  word ;  as,  ''gan^  ''scape^  ''mid^  ^bove^  ''neath^  ''gainst^  ^havior, 
Pll  remember,  for  began,  escape,  amid,  above,  beneath,  against, 
behavior,  I  will  remember. 

2.  Apocope^  omits  one  or  more  of  the  last  letters  of  a  word — 
tlid*^  th\  t\  o'clock,  for  though,  the,  to,  of  clock. 

3.  Syncope^  cuts  out  one  or  more  letters  from  the  middle  of  a 
word ;  as,  e^en^  se^ennight^  wafry^  heav^n^  o'er^  plum'd^  raised,  &c., 
for  even,  sevennight,  watery,  &c. 

4.  Prosthesis,  prefixes  a  letter  or  syllable  to  a  word ;  as,  adown, 
swrceased,  J^paint,  «going,  beloved,  ewchain,  &c.,  for  down,  ceased, 
&c. 

6.  Paragoge  annexes  a  letter  or  syllable  to  a  word ;  as,  with- 
out^Ti,  awaken,  holde/i,  kindZy,  for  without,  awake,  hold,  hind, 

6.  Diuresis  separates  a  diphthong  into  two  separate  sounds  and 
syllables  ;  as,  atrial,  reiterate,  coordinate, 

7.  Synceresis  contracts  two  syllables  into  one ;  as,  learned,  dost^ 
lov*d,  instead  df  learn-ed,  do-est,  lov-ed, 

8.  Tmesis,  is  the  insertion  of  a  word  between  the  elements  of 
a  compound  word ;  as,  which  side  soever,  how  long  soever,  to  us 
ward. 

Syntactical  Figueks. 

These  involve  changes  in  words,  in  position,  in  meaning, 
use,  or  omission  : 

1.  Pleonasm,  which  introduces  words  not  necessary  to  the 
Btrncturo  or  complete  meaning  of  a  sentence ;  as, 

Up,  up,  dull  swain. 
I  sit  me  down,  &c. 
The  moon  herself  ia  lost  in  heaven, 
17 


386  SYNTACTICAL   FIGURES. 

2.  Ellipsis^  is  the  omission  of  a  word  or  words  in  the  constrnc- 
tion  of  a  phrase  or  sentence ;  as, 

St.  PeterU  (Cathedral).  "7b  he^  or  not  to  he — that's  the  question,"  for, 
''  Am  I  to  be,  or  not  to  be — that's  the  question ;"  *'  Ah,  me  I"  for  "  Ah,  pity 
me !"    *  Dost  ask  ?"  for  "  Dost  thou  ask  ?" 

3.  Parenthesis  introduces  a  circumstance  within  the  limits  of  a 
sentence;  as, 

The  planets  cry,  "Forbear!" 
They  chase  our  double  darkness:  Nature's  gloom. 
And  (kinder  still  /)  our  intellectual  night. 

4.  Syllepsis  involves  the  personification  of  a  word,  and  the  use 
of  it,  not  according  to  strict  grammatical  rules,  but  according  to 
tlie  sense  obviously  intended  by  the  writer ;  as, 

"  A  dauntless  soul^  erect,  who  smiles  on  death." 

"  The  whole  city  came  out  to  meet  Jesus,  and  when  they  saw  him,  they 
besouglit  him  to  depart,"  <fec.  -Here  city  is  to  be  regarded  as  meaning  the 
people  of  the  city.  So,  in  the  previous  instance,  soul  is  put  for  the  person 
who  has  a  dauntless  soul — or  soul  is  personified. 

5.  Hyperbaton  transposes  words  and  clauses  in  a  sentence,  in 
order  to  increase  the  vivacity  and  variety  of  composition ;  as, 

"  Great  is  Diana  of  the  Ephesians;"  "He  wanders  ea7'tJi  around  f  "Now 
come  ive  to  the  last ;"  "  A  man  he  toas  to  all  the  country  dear ;"  "  His  voice 
sublime  is  heard  afar." 

6.  Enallage  uses  one  part  of  speech,  or  one  form  of  a  word,  in 
the  place  of  another,  as  an  adjective  for  an  adverb :  "  They  fall 
successive  and  successive  rise ;"  "  A  world  devote  to  universal 
wreck ;"  ti?«  used  for  /,  or  ye  for  thoUy  when  a  single  individual  is 
denoted. 


LESSON    GLXXI. 

POirnC  LANGUAGE   AND   CONSTEXJCTION. 

Not  all  the  specifications  that  follow  are  peculiar^  but 
they  most  abound  in  poetry : 

1.  It  is  the  custom  of  poets  to  employ  words  and  phrases  which 
ore  antiquated,  and  seldom  or  never  used  in  prose ;  as, 


POETIC   DICTION.  387 

'*  Of  features  stern,  selvaggio  well  yde'p'd^^ 

"  When,  where,  likes  me  hest^  I  can  command." 

'*  Was  never  knight  on  ground  mote  be  with  him  compared," 

"  Thy  voice  we  hear,  and  thy  behests  obey." 

"  To /eel  m£  in  the  solitude  of  kings." 

"  In  sooth  ^  he  was  a  strange  and  wayward  wiglhV* 

*'  He  was  to  iveet,  a  little  roguish  page." 

"  Sir  porter  sat  him  down,  and  turn'd  to  sleep  again." 

"  Withouten  that  would  come  a  heavier  fall." 

In  addition  to  the  words  above  quoted  as  not  used  in  prose,  may 
be  mentioned — 

Of  verbs :  hen^  wend^  trow^  astound^  rite. 
Of  adverbs:  oft^  inly^  haply  ^  &c. 

Of  adjectives :  blithe^  born^  darksome^  darkling ,  danh,  doughty,  felly  rife, 
rapt,  sear,  &c. 

2.  Poets  delight  in  compound  epithets ;  as, 

"  From  the  far-off  isles  enchanted." 

"  From  the  wreck  of  hopes  far  scattered, 
Terrvpest-shatter'*d, 
Floating,  waste,  and  desolate." 

"  Of  vice-entaiVd  corruption ;  they,"  &c. 

"  A  gray  and  grief-worn  aspect  of  old  days." 

8.  The  natural  and  prose  arrangement  of  words  is  often  departed 
from ;  for  instance : 

(1.)  The  nominative  follows  its  verb ;  as, 

"  Float  mmQ  fragments  of  a  song." 
"  Nor  wants  some  interchange  of  rule." 
^^^opass'dhe,''  &c. 

(2.)  The  object  precedes  its  verb ;  as, 

"  Who  had  seen  him  then  had  deemed 
By  the  proud  steed-like  tossing  of  his  crest." 
**He  little  merits  bliss  who  others  can  annoy. '^^ 
"  The  which  to  gain  and  keep,  he  sacrificed  all  rest.'  \ 

(8.)  The  adjective  follows  its  noun ;  as, 

"  Gleams  JElysian 

In  the  tropic  clime  of  youth." 

(4.)  The  verb  in  the  infinitive  precedes  the  word  on  which  it 
depends,  or  by  which  it  is  governed  ;  as, 


888  POETIC   DIOTIOK. 

*'  When  first  thy  sire  to  send  on  earth 
Virtue,  his  darling  child,  design'dy 

(6.)  Adverbs  precede  the  words  which  they  modify ;  as, 

**  The  ploughman  homeward  phds  his  weary  way." 

(6.)  Prepositions  succeed  the  object  depending  upon  them ;  as, 

*'  When  beauty  Eden's  bowers  within^ 

*'  The  Muses  fair,  these  peaceful  shades  among.'*^ 

(7).  Adverbs  are  inserted  between  to  and  the  mfinitive ;  as, 

"  To  slowly  trace  the  forest's  shady  scenes." 

(8.)  The  imperative  mood  is  used  in  the  first  and  third  persons; 

OS, 

"  Turn  toe  a  moment  fancy's  rapid  flight." 
"  Be  man's  peculiar  work  his  sole  delight." 
"  And  what  is  reason  ?    Be  she  thus  dejmed." 

(9.)  Ellipsis  is  more  frequently  and  largely  used  than  in  prose ;  as, 

"  To  whom  thus  Adam :  (i.  e.,  sj}ohe) 
"  Gross  he  who  judges  so." 

"  Time  is  our  tedious  song  should  here  have  ending,*' 
**  Bliss  is  the  same  in  subject  as  in  king 
In  who  obtain  defence,  or  who  defend." 

(10.)  Adjectives  are  often  connected  with  nouns  which  they  do 

not  properly  qualify ;  as, 

*'  Imbitter'd  more  from  peevish  day  to  day." 

"  And  drowsy  tinklings  lull  the  distant  folds." 

"  The  ploughman  homeward  plods  his  weary  way.'*'' 

(11.)  Or  and  nor  are  used  in  the  place  of  either  and  neither;  as, 

"  Or  by  the  lazy  Scheldt  or  wandering  Po." 
"  Is  nor  of  heaven  nor  earth." 

(12.)  Adjectives  are  used  like  abstract  nouns ;  aH, 

"And  on  the  boundless  of  thy  goodness  calls." 
"  Meanwhile  whate'er  of  beautiful  or  new^ 

Sublime  or  dreadful,  in  earth,  sea,  or  sky." 

(18.)  Intransitive  verbs  are  made  transitive ;  as, 

"TheyWwrf 
Tba  rural  day^  and  iaWd  the  flowing  keartj** 
"  lie  mourned  no  recreant  friend," 


POETIC   DICTIOIC. 


389 


(14.)  Foreign  idioms,  not  allowed  in  prose,  are  allowed  in 
poetry;  as, 

"  Could  save  the  son  of  Thetis  from  to  die.^^ 
"  He  knew  to  sing  and  build  the  lofty  rhyme." 
**  Yet  ^  their  general's  will  they  all  ohep^d^ 
**  Give  me  to  seize  rich  Nestor's  shield  of  gold." 
'"''Long  were  to  tell  what  I  have  seen." 

(15.)  The  article  is  often  dropped ;  so  also  is  the  relative  pro 
noun : 

"  Like  shipwrecked  mariner  on  desert  coast.^^ 

*'  For  is  there  aught  in  sleep  can  charm  the  wise!' 

"  Air  blacken'd,  roll'd  the  thunder,"  &c. 

(16.)  The  antecedent  is  very  often  omitted ;  as, 

**  So  pass'd  he  ;  loho  had  seen  him  then,  had  deem'd. 

By  the  proud,"  &c. 
*'  Who  loves,  raves ;  'tis  youth's  frenzy." 

(17.)  The  auxiliary  only  of  a  compound  tense  is  often  used,  and 
the  principal  verb  omitted ;  as, 

"  What  for  ourselves  we  can,  is  always  ours." 

"  Angels  could  no  more." 

"  What  would  this  man  ?    Now  upward  will  he  soar." 

(18.)  The  noun  is  repeated  after  the  pronoun  that  referred  to 
it;  as, 

^^It  ceased,  the  melancholy  sound.'*'' 

"  My  banks  theT/are  furnished  with  bees." 

"  His  prayer  he  saith,  this  holy  man?'' 

(19.)  The  comparative  follows  a  positive;  as, 

''''Loud  and  more  loud  was  heard  the  sound." 

"  Wide  and  Tnore  wide,  the  o'erflowings  of  the  mind." 

(20.)  Nouns  are  abbreviated ;  as, 

Morn  for  morning;  helm  for  helmet;  targe  for  target ;  fiAint  for  fount 
&in,  &c. ;  eve  for  evening ;  acclaim  for  acclamation ;  consult  for  consulta 
tion  ;  lore  for  learning. 

(21.)  Adjectives  are  abbreviated;  as, 

Submiss  for  submissive ;  hoar  for  hoary  •  yon  for  yonder ;  lone  for  lonely 
d^Md  for  dreadful,  t&c. 


890  POETIC  DICTION. 

(22.)  Verbs  also  are  abbreviated ;  as, 

Ope  for  open ;  list^  for  listen ;  illume  for  illuminate. 

(23.)  Prefixes  to  verbs  are  supplied ;  as, 

i>i«port,  dis\,2^x\. ;  evanish,  emove,  hedXva :  or  prefixes   are  omitted  ;  as, 
lure  for  allure,  wail  for  bewail,  ream  for  bereave,  &c. 

(24.)  Kelative  pronouns  and  other  connectives  and  adverbs  are 
removed  from  their  regular  position  : 

"  Not  half  so  dreadful  rises  to  the  sight 
Orion's  dog,  the  year  wlien  autumn  weighs." 
**  Erect  the  standard  there  of  ancient  night." 

(25.)  The  antecedent  is  often  placed  after  the  relative ;  as, 

"  WJio  dares  think  one  thing  and  another  tell, 
My  soul  detests  him  as  the  gates  of  hell." 

(26.)  The  adverb  there^  belonging  to  the  first  part  of  a  clause,  is 
omitted;  as, 

"  Wa8  naught  around  but  images  of  rest." 
(27.)  Adjectives  are  used  for  adverbs : 

"  Qradual  sinks  the  breeze." 


LESSON    CLXXII. 

VARIETIES    OF   POETIC   COMPOSITION. — NARRATIVE   POETRY. 

1.  The  Epic  Poem, 

In  this  the  poet  tells  the  story,  and  as  he  lays  claim  to  inspira- 
tion by  the  Muses,  his  language  adapted  to  this,  his  supposed 
character,  must  be  elevated  and  as  elegant  as  possible.  In  dramatic 
writings  the  poet  never  appears,,  but  various  characters  are  intro- 
duced who  say  all  that  is  said. 

An  Epic  Poem  is  the  recital  in  verse  of  some  illustrious  enter- 
prise. The  most  regular  compositions  of  this  sort  are  "  The  Iliad" 
of  Homer,  ''The  ^neid''  of  Virgil,  the  "Jerusalem  Delivered"  of 
Tasso,  and  the  "  Parad)«^e  Lost." 

Other  forms  of  the  £pic^  as  described  by  Dr.  Beattie,  are  (1.) 
The  mixed^  such  as  the  *'Faery  Queen"  of  Spenser,  and  the  "  Orlando 


VARIETIES   OF  POETIO  COMPOSITION.  391 

Furioso"  of  Ariosto ;  in  which  are  less  probability,  less  unity,  and 
great  extravagance  of  invention.  (2.)  The  Historical  poem,  in 
which  the  events  are  generally  true,  and  arranged  in  chronological 
order,  such  as  the  '*  Pliarsalia"  of  Lucan,  and  Addison's  "  Cam- 
paign." (3.)  The  Heroic  Tale^  which  is  wholly  or  nearly  fabulous : 
has  more  unity  and  regularity  than  the  former,  and  turns  for  the 
most  part  upon  some  one  event.  Such  are  some  of  the  tales  in 
Ovid's  "Metamorphoses,"  and  some  of  the  serious  pieces  in  Chau 
cer's  "Canterbury  Tales."  (5.)  The  Didactic  Epic,  in  which 
there  is  more  philosophy  than  narrative ;  such  as  Milton's  "  Para- 
dise Regained."  (6.)  Serious  Romance;  such  as  Fenelon's  "  Te- 
lemachus,"  a  sort  of  prose  poem.  (7.)  Comic  Epic  poetry ;  such 
as  "Don  Quixote,"  and  "  Hudibras." 

2.  DramatiG  Poetry, 

(1.)  The  modern  regular  Tragedy  of  five  acts.  It  is  the  office 
of  tragedy  to  exhibit  the  characters  and  behavior  of  men  as  they 
appear  in  some  of  the  more  trying  and  critical  situations  of  real 
life.  It  does  not,  like  the  Epic,  exhibit  characters  by  the  narra- 
tion and  description  of  the  poet,  but  the  personages  themselves 
are  set  before  us,  acting  and  speaking  what  is  suitable  to  their 
particular  characters.  It  is  a  kind  of  writing  which  requires  an 
extensive  knowledge  of  the  world,  and  a  deep  insight  into  the 
workings  of  the  human  heart. 

The  style  and  versification  of  tragedy  ought  to  be  free,  easy, 
and  varied.     Blank  verse  is  best  adapted  to  it. 

(2.)  The  modern  regular  Comedy  of  five  acts.  The  best  ex- 
ample is  Shakspeare's  "Merry  Wives  of  Windsor."  The  particu- 
lar aim  of  Comedy  is  to  hold  up  to  ridicule-  the  foibles,  follies, 
improprieties,  awkwardnesses,  and  vices  of  mankind ;  while  Tra- 
gedy deals  in  the  great  sufferings  and  passions  of  men. 

(3.)  The  historical  tragi-comedy :  such  as  Shakspeare's  Julius 
Oaasar,  Henry  IV.,  Richard  III.,  &;c. 

(4.)  Poetical  tragi-comedy :  such  as  the  Othello,  Hamlet,  Mac- 
beth, and  Lear  of  tha  same  author.  This  kind  is  generally  founded 
In  fiction  or  ac^  obscure  tradition ;  the  former  is  a  detail  of  the 
historical  events  and  delineation  of  real  characters,  with  some 
occasional  deviations  from  historical  truth. 

(5.)  The  Ballad  Opera:  a  sort  of  comedy  or  farce,  with  «K)iiga 
or  ballads  included. 


392  LYRIC   POETRY. 

(6.)  The  Pastoral:  such  as  the  Pastorals  of  Pope  and  Phillips, 
and  the  Eclogues  of  Spenser,  being  presented  in  the  dialogue  form 
or  soliloquy.  Milton's  "Lycidas,"  and  Mason's  "Monody  on  the 
death  of  Pope,"  come  into  this  class. 

(7.)  The  Dramatic  Pastoral :  a  sort  of  comedy,  or  tragi-comedy 
in  verse,  with  songs  or  odes  interspersed,  and  in  which  the  per- 
sons are  supposed  to  be  shepherds,  or  persons  living  in  the  coun- 
try. The  **  Pastor  Fido"  of  Guarini,  and  the  "  Aminto"  of  Tasso, 
are  of  this  sort. 

(8.)  The  Maslc :  a  sort  of  tragic  poem,  more  wild  in  invention 
and  more  ornamented  in  language  than  a  regular  tragedy  should 
be.    Milton's  "  Comus"  is  the  best  specimen. 


LESSON  CLXXIII. 

LYRIC   POETRY. 

1.  Tlie  Pindaric  Ode^  which  admits  bolder  figures,  and  requires 
more  varied  harmony  than  any  other  form  of  composition.  Ex- 
amples :  Dryden's  "  Alexander's  Feast,"  Gray's  Odes  on  Poetry 
and  the  Death  of  the  Welsh  Bards.  Pindar's  Odes  are  employed 
in  the  praise  of  heroes  and  in  the  celebration  of  their  martial 
achievements. 

2.  The  Horatian  Ode^  which  has  more  simplicity  than  the  Pin- 
daric, and  less  wildness  of  invention,  and  less  variety  of  har- 
mony. Gray's  Odes  on  Spring,  on  Adversity,  and  on  Eton  Col- 
lege, Dryden's  Ode  on  St.  Cecilia,  and  many  of  the  Odes  of  Aken- 
side,  belong  to  this  class. 

3.  The  Descriptive  Ode^  which  paints  the  beauties  of  nature. 
The  two  most  remarkable  poems  of  this  sort,  are  the  Allegro  and 
the  Penseroso  of  Milton,  which  are  exquisitely  beautiful  and  har- 
monious. 

4.  The  Song :  a  short  composition,  adapted  to  music,  and  in- 
tended not  so  much  to  tell  a  story  or  present  poetical  images,  as 
to  express  some  human  passion,  as  joy,  sorrow,  love,  &c. 

The  Sacred  Song  is  composed  on  some  religious  subject,  or  bears 
the  form  of  an  address  to  the  Deity. 

5.  The  PaMoral  Ballad,  nearly  alh'ed  to  the  song,  but  referring 


DESCRIPTIVE   POETRY.  393 

more  particularly  to  the  events  and  passions  of  rural  life ;  such 
as  Shenstone^s  ballad  in  four  parts. 

6.  The  Epic  Ballad^  which  is  narrative,  and  describes  actions 
or  events,  either  warlike  or  domestic,  as  "  Chevy  Chase,"  &c. 

7.  Elegy:  divided  into,  (1.)  The  plaintive  elegy,  expressive 
of  sorrow,  as  Pope's  ''  Elegy  on  an  Unfortunate  Lady."  (2.)  The 
moral  elegy,  expressive  of  moral  sentiments,  with  an  air  of  dig- 
nity and  melancholy.  Gray's  "  Elegy  in  a  Churchyard,"  is  the 
best  poem  extant  of  this  species.  (3.)  The  epistolary  elegy,  era- 
bracing  various  subjects  in  the  form  of  a  letter  in  verse,  with  a 
mixture  of  complaint  and  tenderness.  Pope's  "  Eloisa  to  Abelard" 
is  the  best  in  our  language.  (4.)  The  love  elegy,  designed  for 
pleasure  and  amusement.  (5.)  Young's  "Complaint"  belongs  to 
the  elegiac  class,  and  must  be  considered  as  a  species  by  itself.  It 
has  much  sublimity  and  pathos,  much  elegant  description,  and 
devout  and  moral  sentiment,  delivered  with  uncommon  energy 
of  expression. 


LESSON  CLXXIV. 

DESCRIPTIVE    POETRY. 

Descriptive  poetry  is  employed  to  describe  the  appearances 
and  objects  of  external  nature,  and  is  to  be  found  more  or  less  in 
every  good  poem. 

Thomson's  poem  on  "  The  Seasons"  is  uniformly  descriptive,  or  nearly 
80,  for  which  it  has  been  censured,  on  the  ground  that  description,  though 
highly  ornamental,  ought  not  to  form  the  essence  of  it.  However  this  is  a 
delightful  work,  and  deserves  to  he  studied,  especially  by  the  young ;  as 
it  draws  their  attention  to  the  beauties  of  nature,  and  abounds  in  pious 
and  benevolent  sentiments,  His  '*  Castle  of  Indolence"  is  more  faultless 
in  its  versification ;  and  is  indeed  one  of  the  most  pleasing  poems  in  the 
language. 

Parnell's  "Tale  of  the  Hermit"  is  a  beautiful  descriptive  narra- 
tion, but  no  descriptive  poem  surpasses  in  style  Milton's  Allegro 
and  Penseroso. 

The  Epigram^  strictly  so  called,  is  a  short  copy  of  verses,  writ- 
ten on  some  occasion  not  very  important,  and  ending  with  an 
unexpected  turn  of  wit. 

1T» 


394.  DIDACTIC  POETRY. 

In  the  selection  of  circumstances  lies  the  great  art  of  picturesque 
lescription. 

(1.)  They  should  not  be  common  ones,  but  new  and  original  and  such 
\s  will  draw  attention.  (2.)  They  should  particularize  the  object  and 
mark  it  definitely  and  strongly.  (3.)  All  the  circumstances  selected 
should  correspond  in  the  effect ;  that  is,  in  describing  a  great  object,  they 
should  tend  to  aggrandize  it;  and  in  describing  a  gay  and  pleasant  one, 
should  tend  to  beautify.  (4.)  The  circumstances  should  be  described 
with  simplicity  and  conciseness.  Brevity  contributes  to  vivacity.  So 
Blair,  Lecture  XI. 

Didactic  Poetry. 

This  is  designed  to  give  instruction  in  philosophy,  natural  or 
moral,  deriving  its  name  from  a  Greek  vrord  which  signifies  "  to 
teach."     Of  this  class  is, 

(1.)  The  Philosophical  Poem :  such  as  Armstrong  on  "Health," 
Akenside's  "  Pleasures  of  Imagination,"  Pope's  "  Essay  on  Man," 
"  Cider"  by  Phillips,  and  "  The  Fleece"  by  Dyer. 

(2.)  The  Comic  Satire^  exhibiting  the  follies  of  mankind  in  such 
a  light  as  to  make  them  ridiculous.  Dryden,  Pope,  and  Young 
have  produced  this  species  of  poem. 

(3.)  The  Serious  Satire^  which  inveighs  against  the  vices  and 
crimes  of  mankind.  Its  style  is  more  vehement  and  solemn  than 
the  preceding  species.  Dryden  and  Pope  excel  in  it,  the  former 
in  his  "  Absalom  and  Ahithophel." 

(4.)  The  Moral  Epistle^  which  presents  themes  in  philosophy, 
criticism,  and  the  affairs  of  common  life.  Horace  is  the  great 
master  of  this  species  of  verse.     Pope  also  has  succeeded  well. 

(5.)  The  Moral  Apologue  or  Fable^  is  designed  to  illustrate 
some  one  moral  truth  by  a  short  allegorical  tale.  Gay  is  eminent 
among  English  poets  as  a  writer  of  Fable. 

The  great  art  of  rendering  a  didactic  poem  interesting,  is  to 
relieve  and  amuse  the  reader,  by  connecting  some  agreeable  Epi- 
sodes with  the  principal  subject. 

Ludicrous  Poems. 

Of  many  sorts  of  poems  the  end  is  to  excite  laughter :  such  are 
mock-heroic  poems,  moch-tragedies^  mocTc-pastorals^  and  ridiculous 
epitaphs. 

Any  serious  writing  may  be  turned  into  burlesque,  or  made 


BTTBJECTS   FOR  COMPOSITION. 


395 


ludicrous,  by  preserving  the  manner,  or  the  phraseology,  and 
changing  the  matter,  from  important  and  solemn,  to  frivolous 
and  vulgar. 

Of  moch-heroic  poems,  the  best  are  the  "  Battle  of  the  Frogs  and 
Mice,''  erroneously  ascribed  to  Homer ;  ''  The  Dunciad"  and  "  Rape 
of  the  Lock"  by  Pope,  and  "  The  Dispensary"  by  Garth.  Fielding's 
*'  Tom  Thumb"  is  a  mock-tragedy ;  Gay's  Pastorals  are  a  burlesque 
on  the  Eclogues  of  Virgil ;  Prior's  "  Alma"  is  ludicrous,  didactic, 
and  full  of  exquisite  humor. 


SUBJECTS  FOR  COMPOSITIOIT. 

1. 

The  morning. 

28. 

Benefits  of  studying  the  natural 

2. 

The  evening. 

sciences. 

3. 

Day. 

29. 

Benefits  of  studying  the  modern 

i. 

Night. 

languages. 

5. 

Spring 

30. 

Benefits    of    studying    English 

6. 

Summer. 

grammar  and  rhetoric. 

7. 

Autumn. 

81. 

Benefits    of    studying   English 

S. 

Winter. 

literature. 

9. 

The  city. 

32. 

Benefits  and  proper  methodM  of 

>0. 

The  country. 

reading. 

11. 

Childhood. 

33. 

Benefits    and    disadvantages  of 

12. 

Youth. 

reading  novels  and  other  light 

13. 

Old  age. 

literature. 

14. 

A  morning  walk. 

34. 

Benefits  of  reading  history. 

15. 

An  evening  walk. 

85. 

"                **        biography. 

16. 

A  storm  on  land. 

36. 

"                 "        poetry. 

17, 

A  storm  at  sea. 

37. 

**                 "        newspapers. 

18. 

A  moonlight  scene. 

38. 

"                 *'        reviews. 

19. 

Advantages  of  solitude. 

39. 

Benefits  of  literary  correspond- 

20. 

Advantages  of  society. 

ence. 

21. 

Advantages  of  order. 

40. 

Benefits  of  travelling. 

22. 

True  politeness. 

41. 

Benefits  of  hunting  and  fishing. 

23. 

The  art  of   making   one's  self 

42. 

Disadvantages    and    inconveni- 

happy. 

ences  of  travelling. 

24. 

The  value  of  a  good  character. 

48. 

Importance  of  the  habit  of  med- 

25. 

The  causes  and  evils  of  family 

itation. 

quarrels. 

44. 

Importance  of  forming  habits  of 

26. 

The  advantage  of  classical  learn- 

close observation. 

ing. 

45. 

Habits  of  neatness. 

27. 

Benefits  of  the  study  of  mathe- 

46. 

Habits  of  industry. 

roaitioB. 

47. 

Habits  of  economy. 

396 


SUBJECTS   FOR    COMPOSITION. 


48. 

49. 
50. 
51. 

52. 

53. 
.54. 
55. 
56. 
'>7. 


59. 

60. 
61. 
62. 
63. 

64. 
65. 

66. 
67. 

68. 
69. 
70. 
71. 
72. 
73. 
74. 
75. 
76. 
77. 
78. 
79. 
80. 
81. 
82. 
83. 
84. 
85. 
86. 
37. 


Habits  of  circumspection  and 
caution. 

Habits  of  courtesy. 

Habits  of  meekness. 

Habits  of  religious  devotion. 

Eespect  for  conscience. 

Respect  to  superiors. 

Atfability  to  inferiors. 

Kindness  to  brutes. 

Our  obligations  to  the  horse. 

Our  obligations  to  the  cow  and 
the  ox. 

Our  obligations  to  the  birds. 

The  ever- varying  beauty  of  the 
clouds. 

The  beauty  of  the  deer. 

Beauty  and  advantages  of  rain. 

Beauty  and  advantages  of  snow. 

Beauty  and  advantages  of  flow- 
ers. 

Description  of  some  stream. 

Description  of  a  mountain. 

Description  of  a  valley. 

Description  of  a  village. 

A  country  church. 

Eural  customs. 

Rural  sports. 

Rural  discomforts. 

City  discomforts  and  perils. 

City  advantages. 

Scenes  in  a  railcar. 

Scenes  at  a  railway  station. 

The  telegraph. 

The  post-office. 

Opening  of  the  mail. 

The  power  of  newspapers. 

The  demagogue. 

The  ballot-box. 

The  common-school. 

The  college. 

Female  seminaries. 

Necessity  of  popular  education. 

The  habit  of  attention. 

How  pride  displays  itself. 

Remarks  on  what  the  Bible  says 
of  pride. 


89.  Remarks  on  what  it  says  of  hn« 

mility. 

90.  The  orphan  asylum. 

91.  House  of  refuge    for  juvenile 

offenders. 

92.  The  alms-house. 

93.  Asylums  for  the  deaf  and  dumb 

94.  Asylums  for  the  blind. 

95.  Asylums  for  the  insane. 

96.  Influence    of    Christianity    iu 

founding  benevolent  institu- 
tions. 

97.  Its  influence  in  elevating  the 

female  sex. 

98.  Also  in  improving  the  condition 

of  the  poor. 

99.  Also  in  promoting  science  and 

the  arts. 

100.  Also  in  advancing  domestic  hap- 

piness. 

101.  Its  influence  on  the  human  in- 

tellect. 

102.  The  progress  of  Christianity. 

103.  Duty  of  promoting  its  progress. 

104.  Methods  of  promoting  its  prog- 

ress. 

105.  The  social  culture  imparted  by 

Christianity. 

106.  The  moral  culture  which  it  con- 

fers. 

107.  The  light  it  throws  on  a  future 

state. 

108.  On  the  resurrection  of  the  body. 

109.  Various  forms  of  idolatry. 

110.  Various  superstitions. 

111.  National  customs. 

112.  National  jealousies. 

113.  Evils  of  war. 

114.  Evils  of  polygamy 

115.  Dramatic  entertainments. 

116.  Thoughts  at  the   beginning  of 

the  year. 

117.  Thoughts  at  the  close  of  the 

year, 
i  118.  Thoughts  at  the  beginumg  o^  :. 
[  term  of  study^ 


SUBJECTS   FOB  COMPOSITION. 


397 


119.  Thoughts  at  the  close  of  a  term   150. 

of  study. 

120.  Duties  to  schoolmates.  151. 

121.  A  journey  to  some  place. 

122.  Importance  of  punctuality    in   152. 

school-duties. 

123.  Pleasures  of  school.  153. 

124.  *'         of  home. 

125.  "         of  vacation.  154. 

126.  The  occupations  of  the  farmer.     155. 

127.  The  occupations  of   the  mer-   156. 

chant.  157. 

128.  The  occupations  of  the  sailor.       158. 

129.  The  occupations  of  the  carpen- 

ter. 

130.  The  occupations  of  the  mason.      159. 

131.  The  occupations  of  the  printer. 

132.  The  occupations  of  the  cabinet-    160. 

maker. 
183.  The  occupations  of  the  tanner.     161. 

134.  The  occupations  of  the  black- 

smith. 162. 

135.  The  occupations  of  the  engi- 

neer. 

136.  The  occupations  of  the  editor.      163. 

137.  The  occupations  of  the  author.     164. 

138.  Importance  of  perseverance. 

139.  A  j-ourney  through  the  State  of  165. 

New  York. 

140.  A  journey  through  the  State  of  166. 

Pennsylvania.  167. 

141.  A  journey  through  the  State  of 

Virginia. 

142.  A  journey  through  the  State  of  168. 

Connecticut.  169. 

143.  A  journey  through  the  State  of  170. 

Massachusetts.  171. 

144.  Is  the  game  of  backgammon  to 

be  encouraged  ?  172. 

145.  The  state  and  prospects  of  Chili. 

146.  The  state  and  prospects  of  Peru.    173. 

147.  The  state  and  prospects  of  Mex- 

ico. 

148.  Is  suicide  a  proof  of  courage,  or   174. 

of  the  want  of  it  ?  \  175. 

14y.  A  journey  through  Canada  East.  1 176. 


A  journey  through  Canada 
West. 

A  journey  from  Portland  to 
Montreal. 

A  journey  from  Albany  to  Mon- 
treal. 

A  journey  from  St.  Louis  to 
New  Orleans. 

A  sail  up  the  Hudson  river. 

A  sail  up  the  Potomac  river. 

A  sail  up  the  Connecticut  river. 

A  sail  up  the  Ohio  river. 

Is  it  best  to  encourage  the  cele- 
bration of  the  birthdays  of 
great  men? 

The  necessity  of  attention  tp 
health,  in  a  life  of  study. 

A  good  heart  necessary  to  enjoy 
the  beauties  of  nature. 

On  reading  merely  with  a  view 
to  amusement. 

Which  was  the  greater  reform- 
er, Peter  the  Great  of  Russia, 
or  Henry  VIII.  of  England? 

Venture  nothing,  gain  nothing. 

On  true  patience  as  distinguish- 
ed from  insensibility. 

A  siiil  from  St.  Louis  to  St. 
Paul's. 

A  ride  through  Michigan. 

Which  is  the  most  enlightened 
and  civilized  country  at  the 
present  time  ? 

Never  too  old  to  learn. 

Power  of  music. 

Power  of  eloquence. 

Does  climate  affect  tno  /if.f«*c- 
ter  of  a  people? 

On  the  beauty  and  hapjj'diw&A  oi 
an  ingenuous  dispose  ^ivLi. 

Ought  the  sale  of  ardcj*.  bf  irita, 
for  use  as  a  drink,  be  pn. 
hibited  by  law  ? 

Keep  oat  of  debt. 

A  journey  through  Wales. 

A  journey   hroagh  Scotlaad 


898 


SUBJECTS   FOR   COMPOSITION. 


177.  A  journey  through  Ireland. 

178.  A  journey  through  England. 

179.  Who  is  the  hero  of  Paradise 

Lost? 

180.  A  journey  from  New  York  to 

San  Francisco. 

181.  The  Sandwich  Islands. 

182.  Is    card-playing    a    justifiable 

amusement? 

183.  Present  state  and  prospects  of 

New  Holland. 

184.  The  West  India  Islands. 

185.  Mohammedanism — has   it  pro- 

duced more  evil  than  good  ? 

186.  The  state  and  prospects  of  Bra- 

zil. 

187.  Evils  of  intemperance. 

188.  "        ignorance. 

189.  "        snuff  and  tobacco. 

190.  "        opium. 

191.  "        fashion. 

192.  **        games  of  chance. 

193.  "        idleness. 

194.  "        being  overworked. 

195.  "        the  press. 

196.  "        the  slave-trade. 

197.  '*        an  ill-temper. 

198.  "        extravagance  in  expen- 
diture. 

199.  Evils  of  penuriousness. 

200.  "        large  cities. 

201.  Innocent  amusements. 

202.  Questionable  amusements. 

203.  Ruinous  amusements. 

204.  Taste  for  simple  pleasures. 

205.  The  beauty  of  nature  enhanced 

by  associating  it  with  the  Cre- 
ator. 

206.  Good  and  bad  effects  of  ridi- 

cule. 

207.  Things,  as  well  as  books,  to  be 

studied. 

208.  Moral  influence  of  painting  and 

sculpture. 

209.  The   wonders   of    th«»   human 

frame 


210. 
211. 
212. 
213. 
214. 
215. 
216. 
217. 
218. 
219. 
220. 
221. 
222. 

223. 
224. 

225. 
226. 
227. 
228. 
229. 

230. 
231. 

232. 


234. 
235. 
236. 
237. 
238. 
239. 

24:0. 

i241. 
1242. 
'243, 
;244. 

245. 

246. 

247. 

248. 

249. 

260. 


The  existence  of  God. 
The  wonders  of  the  eye. 
"  "       hand. 

♦*  "       mind. 

The  lessons  taught  by  health. 
"  "        sickness. 

"  *'        prosperity 

*'  *'        adversity. 

Dangers  of  chi  duood. 
Pleasures  of  childhood. 
Dangers  of  youth. 
Pleasures  of  youth. 
Proper  restraints  in  childhood 

and  youth. 
The  game  at  ball. 
The    game    at    battledore  and 

shuttlecock. 
Description  of  other  games. 
The  Spanish  bull-baiting. 
Gladiatorial  shows. 
Tournaments. 
The    duel — its    absurdity    and 

wickedness. 
Decision  of  character. 
The  necessity  of  being  able  to 

say  No. 
Envy,  its  bad  effects  on  the  sub- 
ject as  well  as  object. 
Flattery. 
Slander. 
Talkativeness. 
Taciturnity. 

Dramatic  entertainments. 
Jealousy. 
Self-control. 
Trust  in  God. 
Fortitude. 
Affectation. 
A  mother's  influence. 
Obligations  to  a  mother. 
"  '*    father. 

"  "    brother. 

"  '*    sister. 

Obligations  to  kind  neighbors* 
''  to  the  Sabbath. 

**  "      pulpit. 


SUBJECTS   FOE    COMPOSITION. 


899 


251. 

Obligations 

tc  the  press. 

293. 

252. 

(i 

"      library. 

253. 

The  faithful  friend. 

294. 

254. 

u 

husband. 

255. 

(( 

C 

wife. 

295. 

256. 

(C 

( 

son. 

296. 

257. 

(( 

4 

daughter. 

297. 

258. 

(( 

( 

pastor. 

298. 

259. 

(C 

( 

teacher. 

299. 

260. 

u 

I 

magistrate. 

300. 

261. 

(( 

I 

statesman. 

301. 

262. 

i( 

I 

servant. 

302. 

263. 

(( 

I 

master. 

303. 

264. 

(( 

I 

steward. 

304. 

265. 

(( 

I 

student. 

305. 

266. 

(( 

I 

dog. 

806. 

267. 

Habits  c 

ft] 

tie  dog. 

307. 

268. 

(( 

(( 

cat. 

808. 

269. 

(( 

U 

mouse  and  rat. 

270. 

t( 

a 

hen  and  cock. 

309. 

271. 

(i 

(i 

ox  and  cow. 

272. 

u 

(( 

horse. 

310. 

273. 

u 

(( 

elephant. 

311. 

274. 

(( 

(( 

crocodile. 

312. 

275. 

(( 

{( 

whale. 

313. 

276. 

u 

<t 

porpoise. 

314. 

277. 

It 

(( 

oyster. 

278. 

u 

(i 

singing-birds. 

315. 

279. 

(( 

(( 

pigeon. 

316. 

280. 

(( 

u 

swallow. 

317. 

281. 

(I 

t( 

ostrich,  &c.,  &c. 

318. 

282. 

Honestj 

'  the  best  policy. 

319. 

283. 

Inventic 

)n  of  the  mariner's  com- 

pass. 

284. 

The   in 

^ention    of  the    art  of 

320. 

printir 

»g- 

321. 

285. 

The  in\ 
guerre 

ention  of  the  art  of  da- 
otyping. 

322. 

286. 

The  inv 

ention  of  the  art  of  tele- 

823. 

graphi 

iig- 

«87. 

The  inv 

ention  of  the  cotton-gin. 

288. 

< 

( 

"     telescope. 

289. 

( 

"     microscope. 

324. 

290. 

Proper  < 

iistribution  of  our  time. 

291. 

The  don 

aesticlife  of  the  Eomans. 

825, 

292. 

4 

( 

*'      Greeks. 

S26 

The  domestic  life  (>f  the  ancient 
Egyptians. 

The  domestic  life  of  the  He- 
brews. 

Chaucer  and  his  age. 

Dryden  and  his  age. 

The  education  of  the  senses. 

The  Reformation  under  Lutber» 

The  English  Reformation. 

The  character  of  Byron. 
"  "  Thomson. 

*'  '*  Cowper. 

American  aristocracy. 

Moral  sublimity. 

Home. 

Alexander  the  Great. 

The  Crusades. 

The  influence  of  the  line  arts 
upon  true  religion. 

The  use  of  a  diversity  of  lan- 
guages. 

Religious  intolerance. 

The  Union. 

The  art  of  pleasing. 

Emulation. 

Procrastination  is  the  thief  of 
time. 

Opening  of  the  ports  of  Japan. 

Ballooning. 

Skating. 

American  aborigines. 

The  effect  of  sectarianism  upon 
the  general  spread  and  influ- 
ence of  Christianity. 

Woman's  rights. 

Druidism  and  the  Druids. 

The  sentiment — "Whatever is, 
is  right,"  considered. 

Should  the  main  end  of  punish- 
ment be  the  reformation  of  the 
criminal  or  the  prevention  of 
crime  ? 

Does  disinterested  benevolence 
exist  among  men  ? 
,  The  trials  of  the  teacher. 
,  The  trials  of  the  student. 


400 


SFBJECTS   FOR   COMPOSITION. 


327.  The   comparative  service    ren- 

dered to  mankind  by  Colum- 
bus and  Sir  Isaac  Newton. 

328.  Cast  not  pearls  before  swine. 

329.  Christians  —  the    light    of   the 

world. 

330.  A  new  broom  sweeps  clean. 

831.  The  Bible  as  an  ordinary  read- 

ing-book in  schools. 

832.  Make  hay  while  the  sun  shines. 

333.  "Begone  dull  care." 

334.  Are  parochial  schools  to  be  en- 

couraged ? 

335.  The  Cooly-trade. 

336.  Over-anxiety. 

337.  Which  gives  most  pleasure,  fact 

or  fiction  ? 

338.  Christians— the  salt  of  the  earth. 

839.  The  "fast"  man. 

840.  The  mineral  kingdom  as  a  sub- 

ject of  investigation. 

341.  The  vegetable  kingdom  also. 

342.  The  animal  kingdom  also. 

843.  "The    battle     is    not    to    the 

strong." 
344.  The  river  Ganges  and  its  towns. 

845.  "  Danube      "  " 

846.  "  Tliames      "         " 

847.  May  we  expect  the  English  lan- 

guage to  become  universal. 

848.  Ought  secret  societies  to  be  al- 

lowed in  colleges  ? 

849.  The  localities   of  the  English 

universities. 

850.  The  localities  of  the  Scottish 

uciversities. 

361.  Is  it  ever  advisable  to  act  from 
policy  rather  than  from  prin- 
ciple ? 

352.  The  universities  of  Germany. 

853.  State  of  editcation  in  Spain. 

854.  Comparative  advantages  of  city 

and  country  life. 
S55.  State    of   education    in    South 

America. 
3-56,  The  great  West. 


357.  Is  pride  to  be  commended? 

358.  The  fop. 

359.  The  gamester. 

360.  Character  as  affected  by  physi- 

cal and  moral  cf  uses. 

361.  Rome  was  not  b.iilt  in  a  day. 

362.  Labor  overcomes  all  things. 

363.  Civilization  in  Africa. 

864.  Progress  of  Christianity  in  Af- 
rica. 

365.  Is  labor  a  blessing,  or  a  curse  I 

366.  State  of  education  in  Turkey. 

367.  *'  "  China. 

368.  "  "  Japan. 

369.  Is  tea  or  coffee,  as  a  tirink,  in- 

jurious? 

370.  Emulation  in  schools. 

371.  Uses  of  biography. 

372.  "     history. 

373.  Man,  accountable  for  his  opin- 

ions. 
874.  Is  it  expedient  to  wear  mourn- 
ing apparel? 

375.  Make  haste  gently. 

376.  Resist  the  beginnings  of  evil. 

377.  Is  a  lie  ever  justifiable? 

878.  Should    the    truth    always    be 
spoken  ? 

379.  Avoid  extremes. 

380.  Roman  conquest  in  Britain. 

381.  The  wisdom  of  aiming  at  per- 

fection. 

382.  A  cultivated  mind  necessary  to 

make  retirement  agreeable. 

383.  The  want  of  personal  beauty  a 

frequent  cause  of  virtue  and 
happiness. 

384.  The  means  of  rendering  old  age 

honorable  and  comfortable. 

385.  The   disadvantage  of   publicly 

adopting  a  new  translation  oi 
the  Bible. 

386.  On  the  multiplication  of  books. 
887.  The  value  of  an  honest  man. 

I  388.  Music,  as  an  amusement. 
1 889.  Th©  influence  of  fashion. 


SUBJECTS   FOR   COMPOSITION. 


401 


890.  The  ffear  of  growing  old. 

391.  Is  reading,  or  observation,  the 
better  source  of  knowledge. 

S92.  Comparison  of  Alexander,  Han- 
nibal, and  Napoleon  I.,  as 
generals. 

893.  Does    morality    advance    with 
civilization  ? 
.  394.  Comparative  selfishness  of  the 
miser  and  the  profligate. 

895.  ]6  there  reason  to  suppose  that 
other  planets  are  inhabited  ? 

396.  Is  childhood  the  happiest  peri- 

od of  life  ? 

397.  Not  all  is  gold  that  glitters. 

398.  Influence  of  Cromwell. 

399.  *'        *'  Peter  the  Great. 

400.  "        '*  Charles  II. 

401.  The  advantage  and  disadvan- 

tage of  critical  reviews,  to  sci- 
ence and  literature. 

402.  Ought  a  lawyer  to  defend  what 

he  knows  to  be  the  wrong  side 
of  a  cause  ? 

403.  Are  women  equal  to   men  in 

mental  powers  ? 

404.  Comparative  evil  of  loss  of  sight, 

and  of  hearing. 

405.  Was  it  right  to  execute  Major 

Andre  ? 

406.  Example  better  than  precept. 

407.  The  Crusades — their  effects. 

408.  Do  real  or  imaginary  evils  cause, 

on  the  whole,  the  most  suff'er- 
ing? 

409.  The  comparative  benefits  of  fire 

and  water. 

410.  Is  it  true  that  "  Every  man  is 

the  architect  of  his  own  for- 
tune «" 

411.  Is    it    expedient    that    women 

should    vote    at    the    ballot- 
box? 

412.  By  which  is  man  most  strongly 

influenced — by  hope,  or  fear? 
il3.  Ad'^^antages  of  adversity. 


414.  The    tendency   of  Sir   Waltei 

Scott's  writings. 

415.  The  tendency  of  Lord  Byron's 

writings. 

416.  The  tendency  of  Dickens'  writ- 

ings. 

417.  Does  poverty  or  riches  develop 

character  best. 

418.  Early  rising. 

419.  The  love  of  money,  the  root  of 

all  evil. 

420.  Is  language  of  human  or  of  di- 

vine origin? 

421.  Is  a  public  to  be  preferred  to  a 

private  education? 

422.  Experience  an  invaluable  teach- 

er. 

423.  Evil    communications     corrupt 

good  manners. 

424.  Should  the  course  of  study  in 

academies  and  colleges,  for  all 
pupils  be  the  same  ? 

425.  Inexpediency  of   devoting  too 

much  time  to  accomplishments. 

426.  No  one  should  live  for  himself 

alone. 

427.  Ought  males  and  females  to  be 

educated  at  the  same  school  ? 

428.  Is  the  pulpit  or  the  bar  more 

favorable  to  eloquence  ? 

429.  The  tendency  of  the  study  of 

mythology. 

430.  Street  beggary. 

431.  Does    temptation    lessen    the 

blameworthiness  of  ofime  ? 

432.  The  assaults  of  Infidelity  upon 

Christianity. 

433.  The  death  of  Julius  Caesar. 

434.  Are  women  more  given  to  re- 

venge than  men  ? 

435.  Was  the  fate  of  Sir  Walter  Ka- 

leigh  deserved  ? 

436.  Infidel  tendency  of  Pope's  "Es- 

say on  Man." 

437.  He  who  gives  to  the  poor  will 
1  not  find  himself  the  poorer. 


402 


SUBJECTS   FOR   COMPOSITION. 


438.  Bible  ivligion  knows  nothing  of 

monks  and  hermits. 

439.  Praise  is  a  test  which  proves 

either  a  man's  pride  or  piety. 

440.  A  sympathizing  friend  refreshes 

the  spirit. 

441.  Frequent  change  of  business  ad- 

verse to  success. 

442.  Overpraising  a  man,  makes  him 

an  object  of  envy. 

443.  We  must  not  give  that  praise  to 

our  friend  which  belongs  to 
God  only. 

444.  He  who  listens  to  lies  will  be 

surrounded  by  liars. 

445.  Discipline  is  the  order  of  God's 

government. 

446.  It  is  wisdom  to  keep  every  one 

in  his  proper  station. 

447.  Anger  opens  the  flood-gates  to 

many  evils. 

448.  The  fear  of  man  makes  a  man 

mean  ;  the  fear  of  God  makes 
him  great. 

449.  Good  men  love  their  worst  ene- 

mies. 

450.  Time-servers. 

451.  Self-knowledge    will  make    us 

humble. 

452.  Lessons  taught  by  the  ants,  the 

conies,  the  locusts,  and  the 
spider. — Frov.  xxx.  25-28. 

453.  Agur's  excellent  prayer. — Prov. 

xxx.  8,  9, 

454.  The  lady'slooking-glass.— Prou. 

xxxi.  10-31. 

455.  The  dying  remark  of  the  learned 

Grotius — "  I  have  sp.^nt  my 
life  in  laboriously  doing  noth- 
ing." 

456.  Eiches    "make  to    themselves 

wings,  and  fly  away." 

457.  Getting  and  hoarding. 

458.  Use  and  abuse  of  God's  gifts. 

459.  Contentment  with  our  lot. 

460.  Kiches  do  not  make  men  happy. 


461. 
462. 
463. 
464. 
465. 

466. 

467. 
468. 

469. 

470. 

471. 
472. 

473, 
474, 
475. 


476. 

477. 
478, 


479. 


480. 


It  is  good  to  c&lculate  how  a 
thing  will  end. 

We  are  not  to  expect  perfection 
from  our  fellow-men. 

The  most  powerful  nonarch 
cannot  defeat  death. 

All  men  are  guided  by  a  Divine 
Providence. 

The  happy  art  of  learning  not  to 
speak  too  much,  and  when  we 
do  speak,  of  speaking  to  some 
good  purpose. 

Let  us  avoid  speaking  evil,  a» 
well  as  doing  evil. 

No  gayety  will  put  off  death. 

The  fear  of  God  is  the  greatest 
safeguard. 

Nothing  so  effectually  hides 
what  we  are  as  silence. 

Do  not  visit  your  neighbor  so 
often  that  he  shall  say,  "  It  is 
enough?" 

He  is  truly  rich  who  desires 
nothing. 

He  who  considers  consequences 
with  too  much  attention  is  or- 
dinarily a  man  of  no  courage. 

Do  good  to  him  who  does  you 
evil. 

Commit  not  the  fault  for  which 
you  reprove  others. 

Count  that  a  lost  day  in  which 
you  have  neither  done  some 
good  action,  nor  acquired  some 
useful  knowledge. 

Do  nothing  without  design. 

Never  trust  to  appearances. 

It  is  a  double  present  when 
given  with  a  cheerful  counte- 
nance. 

If  you  wish  your  enemy  never 
to  know  your  secret,  never  di- 
vulge it  to  your  friend. 

The  best-expended  riches  aro 
those  which  are  given  for 
God's  sake. 


SUBJECTS   FOR   COMPOSmON. 


403 


<S1.  It  will  be  more  profitable  for 
thee  to  adorn  thy  inside  than 
thy  outside. 

482.  Labor  for  the  other  life  that 
awaits  thee. 

488.  The  mind  only  affords  content- 
ment. 

484.  Sudden  prosperity. 

485.  A  wise  man  may  gain  from  the 

society  of  all. 

486.  The  uncertainty  of  life. 

487.  Dreams. 

488.  Ostentation. 

489.  Scandal. 

490.  Moderation. 

491.  The   truly  pious    and  amiable 

family. 

492.  The  true  patriot  loves  his  coun- 

try, and  mourns  over  her  ca- 
lamities. 
498.  God's  Book  is  not  only  a  guide 
to  a  better  world,  but  also  a 
guide  through  this. 

494.  Money    wrongly    gained    is    a 

curse. 

495.  The    honest    industry    of    the 

poor. 

496.  Eighteousness    is    better   than 

riches. 

497.  Modesty  is  the  best  female  or- 

nament. 

498.  Liberality  brings  the  best  re- 

turns. 

499.  Importance  of  an  interest  in  the 

Divine  favor. 
600.  Eeverence  for  parents. 

501.  Diligence  not  content  with  mere 

desiring. 

502.  He  is  a  wise  trader  who  deals  in 

knowledge. 
608.  To  mock  at  sin  is  to  laugh  at 

one's  ruin. 
504*  Haughty    deportment    towards 

inferiors  is  sinful  and  selfish. 
605.  Truth  is  the  cement  of  society. 
506.  Meekness  is  wisdom. 


507. 


508, 


509. 


510. 


511. 
512. 


513. 


514. 
515. 


516. 


517. 

518. 

519. 

520. 

521. 
522. 
523. 


524. 


525. 


526. 
527. 


528. 


529. 


The  poor  form  a  necessary  and 
useful  part  of  society. 

In  reproaching  the  poor,  we  re- 
proach the  wisdom  of  God. 

Modesty  is  the  badge  of  wis- 
dom. 

Soft  words  the  best  remedy  for 
hard  arguments. 

The  tongue  shows  the  man. 

Knowledge  is  well  used  when  A 
is  dispersed. 

Nothing  in  domestic  life  can 
compensate  the  absence  of  love 
and  peace. 

God  sees  through  all  disguises. 

The  countenance  the  index  of 
the  heart. 

The  brightest  joys  and  bittei- 
est  tears  flow  from  parents' 
hearts. 

Not  earth,  but  heaven,  attracts 
the  truly  wise. 

We  speak  wisely  when  we  speak 
seasonably. 

The  covetous  are  mean  and  un- 
just. 

The  prudent  man  thinks  before 
he  speaks. 

Female  authorship. 

Distinguished  females. 

They  that  learn  well  and  obey 
well,  are  likely  in  time  to  teach 
well  and  to  rule  well. 

Wisdom's  grand  lesson  is  the 
fear  of  God. 

Our  wisest  decision  is  to  deter- 
mine that  "  whatever  pleases 
God  shall  please  us." 

Man  proposes,  but  God  disposes. 

The  best  way  is  that  which 
avoids  sin. 

The  wise  man  has  something 
good  to  say  on  all  occasions. 

If  we  make  religion  our  busi- 
ness, God  will  make  it  ouf 
blessedness. 


404 


SITBJECTS   FOR   COMPOSITIOIT. 


530.  The  wickedness  of  sowing  strifes, 
and  of  dissolving  kindly  friend- 
ships. 

631.  He  that  by  God's  grace  con- 
quers himself,  is  the  greatest 
conqueror. 

532.  What  seems  to  us  like  chance, 

is  with  God  design. 

533.  Love  in  a  cottage  better  than 

strife  in  a  palace. 

534.  True  dignity  goes  by  merit,  and 

not  by  position. 

535.  Sinners  strengthen  each  others 

hands. 

536.  We  should  never  rejoice  in  the 

calamities  of  others. 

537.  Aged  parents    should    not   be 

reckoned  a  burden. 

538.  Money  is  one  of  the  greatest 

corrupters. 

539.  The  way  to  preserve  peace  in 

families  and  communities,  is 
to  make  the  best  of  every 
thing. 

540.  The  passionate  man. 

541.  Ingratitude   is    a  crime  which 

God  will  punish. 

'V4-2.  Extinguish  the  first  spark  of 
contention,  ere  it  become  a  de- 
structive flame. 

548.  Never  palliate  sin. 

544.  Constancy,  the  test  of  friend- 

ship. 

545.  Suretyship  is  in  general  an  act 

of  imprudence. 

546.  Ambition  often  ends  in  ruin. 

547.  Many  a  one  has  paid  dear  for  an 

unbridled  tongue. 

548.  Children,  a  blessing  or  a  curse. 

549.  The  greatest  wrongs  often  done 

under  the  color  of  doing  right. 

550.  A  cool  head,  with  a  warm  heart. 

551.  To  acquire  knowledge  we  must 

be  ardent  and  diligent. 
652.  The  prodigal  and  the  idler  are 
fools. 


553.  Pride,  the  presage  of  rain. 

554.  Hear  both   sides   before  deter*^ 

mining  a  question. 

555.  Contentions   between    brothers 

or  sisters. 

556.  Care    about     the     words     wf. 

speak. 

557.  Eiches  promote  pride. 

558.  Poverty  promotes  humility. 

559.  Friendship  must  be  reciprocal. 

560.  Murmuring  against  God. 

561.  He  is  not  wise  who  hastily  takes 

offence. 

562.  Kindness  to  God's  poor,  is  con- 

sidered as  kindness  to  Him- 
self. 

563.  Angry  persons  never  want  woe. 

564.  Men    project,    but    God    over- 

rules. 

565.  It  is  better  to  have  a  heart  to  dc 

good,  and  want  ability  to  do 
it,  than  to  have  ability  for  it, 
and  want  a  heart  to  do  it. 

566.  Sin  may  be  pleasant  in  the  com- 

mission, but  it  will  be  bitter 
in  the  reflection. 

567.  It  is  good  in  every  thing  to  act 

with  deliberation. 

568.  Tale-bearers  and  flatterers  are 

to  be  avoided. 

569.  A  bargain  made  by  fraud  will 

prove  a  losing  bargain. 

570.  Our  enterj  rises  succeed  as  God 

directs  a:  d  disposes. 

571.  Determine  what  you  can  bestow 

for  holy  purposes,  and  then 
bestow  cheerfully. 

572.  Conscience,  God's  light  in  the 

soul. 

573.  The  old  and  the  young,  should 

mutually  esteem  each  other. 

574.  Man  often  thinks  his  ways  right, 

when  God  sees  them  to  be 
wrong. 

575.  Diligence,   essential  to  success 

in  life. 


SUBJECTS   FOR   COMPOSITION. 


405 


576.  Occupations  pursued  by  men 
which  should  be  relinquished 
to  women. 

677.  The  votaries  of  pleasure  often 

become  the  victims  of  poverty. 

678.  The  wicked,  often   brought  to 

the  very  trouble  which  they 
designed  for  the  righteous. 

679.  Expenses    should    be    propor- 

tioned to  our  income. 

680.  Those   that   wouki    keep   their 

souls,  must  keep  their  lips. 
581,  The  mere  show  of  devotion  is 
hateful  to  God. 

682.  There  can  be  no  success  agamst 

God,  nor  without  God. 

683.  Great  riches  often  bring  great 

cares. 

584.  A  good  name  brings  comfort. 

585.  The  rich  and  poor  may  be  mu- 

tually helpful  to  each  other. 

586.  Many  evils  might,  by  foresight 

and  reflection,  be  avoided. 

587.  Early  lessons  last  long. 

588.  The  idle  never  want  excuses. 

589.  Avoid  the  testy  and  angry. 

590.  Never  invade  another's  right. 

591.  Industry  is  the  way  to  promo- 

tion. 

592.  The  relief  of  oppressed  inno- 

cence a  solemn  duty. 

693.  We  are  out  of  place  when  we 
ape  the  dignity  and  extrava- 
gance of  those  whom  Provi- 
dence has  placed  above  us. 

6d4.  Hard  words  break  no  bones,  but 
soft  words  do. 

695.  Pleasures  of  sense   lose   their 

sweetness  by  excessive  use. 

696.  Kindness  to  enemies  is  the  best 

conqueror. 

597.  Slanders  would  not  be  so  readily 
spoken,  if  not  readily  heard. 

698.  The  government  of  our  tem- 
pera. 

599.  Avoid  quarrelsome  personB. 


600.  No  certainty  of  to-morrow. 

601.  Envy — an  implacable  passion. 

602.  Coarse  fare  even,  with  a  j^ood 

appetite,  should  be  matter  of 
thankfulness. 

603.  Sin  makes  men  cowards. 

604.  Man  was  not  framed  for  soli- 

tude, but  for  society. 

605.  We  are  not  born  to  be  idle,  but 

each  one  should  attend  to  a 
proper  calling. 

606.  On  parental  indulgence. 

607.  Life  of  Moses. 

608.  "      Deborah. 

609.  *'      Joseph. 

610.  *'      the  Prophet  SamueL 

611.  "      Abraham. 

612.  -     "      Job. 

613.  "      Nehemiah. 

614.  "      Queen  Esther. 

615.  "      Euth. 

616.  "      David. 

617.  "      Solomon. 

618.  "      Paul. 

619.  "      Dorcas. 

620.  Martyrdom  of  Stephen. 

621.  Paul's  shipwreck. 

622.  Eemedy  for  discontent. 

623.  Moral,   political,   and  reli^ous 

effects  of  printing. 

624.  Importance    of  governing   the 

temper. 

625.  Effect  of  the  English  translation 

of  the  Bible  on  style  of  com- 
position. 

626.  Pleasures  of  reflection. 

627.  Hospitality  and  the  civilities  of 

common  life. 

628.  Pleasures  of  a  garden. 

629.  Duty  of  adorning  life  and  of 

serving  society  by  laudable  ex- 
ertion. 

630.  The  best  method  of  reading. 

631.  The  propriety  of  sporting. 

632.  It  is  easier  to  blame  than  to  do 

better. 


406 


SUBJECTS   FOR   COMPOSITION. 


633.  It  is  folly  to  fear  what  one  can- 

not avoid. 

634.  It  is  good  fishing  in  troubled 

waters. 

635.  It  is  hard  to  swim  against  the 

stream. 

636.  Joy  is  like  the  ague  :  one  good 

day  between  two  bad  ones. 

637.  Judges  should  have  two  ears : 

both  alike. 

638.  Late  repentance  is  seldom  worth 

much. 

639.  Less  advice  and  more  hands. 

640.  Lip  courtesy  avails  much  and 

costs  little. 

641.  Little  brooks  make  great  rivers. 

642.  Little  by  little  the  bird  builds 
"   its  nest. 

643.  Live  and  learn. 

644.  Look  before  you  leap. 

645.  Love  begins  at  home. 

646.  Love  and  poverty  are  hard  to 

conceal. 

647.  Love  grows  with  obstacles. 

648.  Love  rules  without  law. 

649.  Make  use  of  the  sun  while  it 

shines. 

650.  Many  cooks  spoil  the  broth. 

651.  Many  heads,  many  minds. 

652.  Married  to-day,  marred  to-mor- 

row. 
658.  Money  is  an  epitome  of  human 
power. 

654.  Men  are  rare. 

655.  Marrying  is  easy,  but  house- 

keeping is  hard. 

656.  Mouth  of  honey,  heart  of  gall. 

657.  Much  chatter,  little  wit. 


658.  Must  is  a  hard  nut. 

659.  My  No  is  as  good  as  your  Yes. 

660.  Never  do  evil  that  good  majF 

come  of  it. 

661.  New  come,  welcome. 

662.  New  loves  drive  out  the  old. 

663.  No  corn  without  chaff. 

664.  No  one  is  content  with  his  lot. 

665.  No  one  is  too  old  to  learn. 

666.  Not  all  words  require  an  answer. 

667.  Old  trees  are  not  to  be  bent. 

668.  One  beats  the  bush,  and  another 

catches  the  bird. 

669.  One  fool  praises  another. 

670.  One  has  only  to  die  to  be  praised. 

671.  One  half  the  world  knows  not 

how  the  other  half  lives. 

672.  One  learns  by  failing. 

673.  Opportunity  makes  the  thief. 

674.  Out  of  a  great  evil  often  comes 

a  great  good. 

675.  Out  of  the  abundance  of  the 

heart  the  mouth  speaketh. 

676.  Practice  makes  perfect. 

677.  Pride  will  have  a  fall. 

678.  Praise  a  fine  day  at  night. 

679.  Promising  is  one  thing,  perform- 
ing another. 

680.  Saving  is  getting. 

681.  Wind  and  tide  wait  for  no  man. 

682.  Second  thoughts  are  best. 
\.  Sorrow  seldom  comes  alone. 
t.  The  golden   key  opens  every 

door. 

685.  The  art  is  not  in  making  money, 
but  in  keeping  it. 

686.  Proverbs  are  the  daughters  of 
daily  experience. 


THB  END. 


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